Jerusalem: The Holy City

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5707 \CANAANITE 11 585 \ASSYRIAN 605 505 \AMORITES 1119 342 \JEBUSITES 1471 320 \MYCENAEN 1800 351 \OLD CITY 2160 459 \TYROPEAN VALLEY 2635 453 \KIDRON VALLEY 3102 380 \HINNOM VALLEY 3496 401 \OPHEL RIDGE 3909 350 \EXECRATION TEXTS 4276 287 \AQEDAT YITZHAK 4578 532 \TEL AL-AMARNA 5124 349 \JOSHUA 5480 551 \DAVID 6037 460 \CITY OF DAVID 6511 326 \DAVID'S CITY 6850 326 \TEMPLE MOUNT 7189 465 \ARK OF THE COVENANT 7674 445 \SOLOMON 8127 516 \SOLOMON'S PALACE 8660 410 \TWELVE TRIBES 9084 530 \LIONS 9620 363 \KING REHOBOAM 9997 385 \KING SHISHAK 10395 257 \COHANIM 10660 536 \AHAB 11201 513 \JEHOSHAPHAT 11726 462 \UZZIAH 12195 390 \AMOS 12590 199 \AHAZ 12794 380 \ISAIAH 13181 406 \HEZEKIAH 13596 425 \SENNACHERIB 14033 405 \SHILOAH 14446 356 \MENASSEH 14811 474 \JOSIAH 15292 540 \JEREMIAH 15841 424 \BOOK OF THE LAW 16281 358 \BABYLONIAN 16650 273 \JEHOIACHIN 16934 336 \NEBUCHADNEZZAR 17285 420 \ZEDEKIAH 17714 448 \PSALM 137 18172 561 \EZEKIEL 18741 448 \NINTH OF AV 19201 423 \CYRUS 19630 588 \PERSIANS 20227 809 \NEHEMIAH 21045 527 \EZRA 21577 379 \HELLENIZATION 21970 541 \ALEXANDER THE GREAT 22531 648 \SEPTUAGINT 23190 478 \ALEXANDRIA 23679 556 \PTOLEMIES 24245 615 \SELEUCIDS 24870 666 \JASON 25542 487 \MACCABEES II 26042 792 \MODIIN 26841 604 \HANUKKAH 27454 534 \HASMONEAN KINGDOM 28006 644 \PHARISEES 28660 585 \SADDUCEES 29255 546 \POMPEY 29808 430 \HYRACANUS II 30251 653 \ARISTOBULUS II 30919 384 \HOLY OF HOLIES 31318 572 \CAESAR 31897 496 \HEROD 32399 740 \ANTIGONUS II 33152 635 \WESTERN WALL 33800 784 \JAFFA GATE 34595 277 \AQUEDUCT 34881 418 \BETHLEHEM 35309 792 \JOHN THE BAPTIST 36118 414 \GALILEE 36540 790 \PROCURATORS 37342 502 \CAESAREA 37853 712 \TALMUD 38572 762 \SANHEDRIN 39344 477 \PASSOVER 39830 642 \HEROD ANTIPAS 40486 556 \EUCHARIST 41052 542 \MOUNT OF OLIVES 41610 728 \GETHSEMANE 42349 446 \JUDAS 42801 382 \GOSPELS 43191 438 \PRAETORIUM 43640 485 \GOLGOTHA 44134 353 \HEBREW CHRISTIAN 44504 512 \PAUL THE APOSTLE 45033 462 \HEROD AGRIPPAS 45510 635 \MASADA 46152 740 \PELLA 46898 500 \VESPASIAN 47408 410 \TITUS 47824 503 \TRIUMPHAL ARCH 48342 480 \YAVNEH 48829 702 \HADRIAN 49539 445 \AELIA CAPITOLINA 50001 597 \SHIMEON BAR KOCHBA 50617 660 \SEPTIMUS SEVERUS 51294 305 \CONSTANTINE 51611 743 \BYZANTIUM 52364 699 \COUNCIL OF NICAEA 53081 601 \CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHER 53711 879 \TRUE CROSS 54601 458 \COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON 55080 385 \JULIAN 55472 825 \JOVIAN 56304 465 \THEODOSIUS II 56783 544 \PATRIARCHAL SEE 57343 572 \MADEBA MAP 57926 532 \CHOSROES II 58470 530 \MOHAMMED 59009 719 \ABU BAKR 59737 358 \'OMAR IBN AL-KHATTAB 60116 841 \MECCA 60963 465 \SURA 61433 335 \SOPHRONIUS 61779 699 \DOME OF THE ROCK 62495 657 \QADI 63157 176 \'ALI 63338 504 \CRUSADES 63851 581 \TEMPLARS 64441 718 \HOSPITALLER KNIGHTS 65179 591 \SECOND CRUSADE 65785 265 \LATIN STATES 66063 297 \EASTERN CHRISTIAN 66378 511 \THIRD CRUSADE 66903 420 \FOURTH CRUSADE 67338 446 \JOSEPHUS FLAVIUS 67801 378 \ANTONIA FORTRESS 68196 667 \CARDO 68869 627 \NEA CHURCH 69507 761 \UMAYYAD 70276 688 \DAMASCUS 70973 582 \'ABD AL-MALIK 71569 593 \AL-AQSA 72170 909 \'ABBASID 73088 638 \CHARLEMAGNE 73738 527 \FATIMID 74273 782 \SHI'ITE 75063 798 \SUNNITES 75870 705 \SELJUQS 76583 610 \BALDWIN 77201 571 \SALAH A-DIN 77784 868 \AYYUBID 78660 842 \ASHKELON 79511 546 \FREDERICK II 80070 705 \MONGOL 80782 613 \SABIL OF QA'ITBAY 81413 312 \MADRASA 81733 544 \MADRASA AL ASHRAFIYYA 82299 520 \PASHA 82825 587 \ISRAEL MUSEUM 83426 557 \ARMENIANS 83993 732 \MOHAMMED 'ALI 84739 742 \GODFREY DE BOUILLON 85501 692 \MAMELUKES 86203 702 \SULEIMAN 86914 731 \SELIM II 87654 581 \MURAD III 88245 508 \OTTOMAN EMPIRE 88768 614 \CRIMEAN WAR 89394 647 \TANZIMAT 90050 769 \SULTAN 90826 457 \NAHMANIDES 91294 831 \RABBI OVADIAH DA BERTINORO 92152 683 \ DAVID'S TOMB 92849 673 \ASHKENAZI 93532 666 \MOUNT ZION 94209 981 \JERUSALEM-AREA MONASTERIES 95217 709 \LEHI 95931 631 \DERVISH 96570 522 \BEDOUIN 97100 693 \ARAB LEGION 97805 660 \SUEZ CANAL 98476 755 \ROMANESQUE 99242 739 \VIA DOLOROSA 99994 460 \MOUNT SCOPUS 100467 682 \HANEVI'IM STREET 101166 725 \HEBREW UNIVERSITY 101909 450 \ROCKEFELLER MUSEUM 102378 399 \CHRISTIAN QUARTER 102795 242 \CITADEL 103045 707 \WHITE PAPER 103764 613 \KHALAMIT 104386 675 \CHURCH OF THE ASCENSION 105085 648 \COENACULUM 105744 485 \POLL TAX 106238 545 \CALIPH AL HAKIM 106799 676 \CALIPH 'ABD AL-'AZIZ 107496 689 \COLONEL STORRS 108200 619 \PARTITION PLAN 108834 697 \GENERAL ALLENBY 109547 489 \VILAYETS 110045 230 \JERUSALEM STONE 110291 664 \EARTHQUAKE 110966 812 \AUGUSTA VICTORIA 111795 897 \MARK ANTONY 112704 854 \ANTIOCH 113566 830 \NAHMANIDES SYNAGOGUE 114417 1026 \MISHKENOT SHA'ANANIM 115464 974 \MAMILLA POOL 116451 620 \MAHANEH YEHUDA 117086 643 \REHAVIA 117737 1098 \BAYIT VEGAN 118847 630 \CALIPHA 119485 705 \SHEIKH JARRAH 120204 595 \TALBIYEH 120808 718 \KATAMON 121534 551 \HASMONEAN PALACE 122102 0 CANAANITE (Greek Phoenicians) The various Semitic peoples who inhabited Syro- Palestine, from c. 2000 to 1200 BCE, the time of Israelite settlement. Ca- naan was not a united political body, but rather comprised numerous po- litical entities, most of which were cities or city-states, such as Jerusa- lem, ruled by kings. The Canaanite city-states were caught in the strug- gles between surrounding powers: Egypt, Babylonia, Mitanni, and the Hittites. Egypt prevailed by the 3rd millennium BCE. "Canaan" is also used to denote only the coastal area during this period, and not the entire area. ASSYRIAN A kingdom of northern Mesopotamia which, during the 14th century, be- came a major power. The Assyrians were known for their military prow- ess and feats of building, exemplified by cities such as Ashur and Nimrud. During the 8th-7th century BCE, un- der a series of powerful kings, Assyria expanded to include all of Syro-Palestine and much of Egypt, including the northern Israelite kingdom which it conquered in 722 BCE. Babylonia replaced Assyria in the sixth century as the dominant regional power. AMORITES The Amorites were the inhabitants of the land of Israel before it was con- quered by the Israelites. The Amorite tribes came from the west and pene- trated Canaan beginning in the early centuries of the second millennium. They occupied not only the Canaan area, but all the territory extending from the Euphrates to the Mediter- ranean Sea. JEBUSITES One of the peoples of Canaan, men- tioned in the Bible. The Jebusites held Jerusalem until David con- quered it, around 1000 BCE. The origin of the Jebusites is unknown, though biblical clues indicate that they were the last to enter Canaan, and were probably the smallest in population of all the Canaanite peo- ples. MYCENAEN A people who lived on the southern Greek mainland during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2100-1600 BCE). The Mycenaens conducted trade with the Levant, including Canaan, based largely on their highly developed in- dustry of thrown pottery. The di- verse shapes and decorations of My- cenaen pottery are forerunners of the masterpieces of classical Greece. OLD CITY The walled ancient section of modern Jerusalem, built in the 16th century by Suleiman the Magnificent. Al- though the walls standing today were built relatively late in the history of Jerusalem, they encompass the area occupied by Jerusalem in its multiple incarnations since Solomon's time. The Old City is distinct from the City of David, which was located mainly outside the current walls, on the eastern of the two ridges on which the Old City is built. TYROPEAN VALLEY The valley bisecting the Old City from north to south. The name, mentioned in the writings of Jose- phus Flavius, means "cheesemakers". During the First Temple period, the valley was known as "HaGai" (the valley). When Jeru- salem occupied only the eastern ridge, the Tyropean provided pro- tection on the western front. Later, bridges were built connecting the eastern ridge with the western. Over the centuries, the valley was filled in with debris. KIDRON VALLEY The valley forming the eastern boundary of the Old City. The Kidron originates near Mount Scopus and runs south where it joins Wadi al-Joz, or Simon the Just Val- ley. As it continues south it cuts be- tween the western slopes of the Mount of Olives and the Old City. Just south of the Old City, the valley turns east, and its waters drain into the northern end of the Dead Sea. HINNOM VALLEY The valley forming the southwestern and southern boundary of the Old City. The Hinnom originates at pres- ent-day France Square outside the city walls, at a watershed point. Continuing down Agron Street to the Jaffa Gate area, the valley curves south past Mount Zion and then east around the southern wall of the Old City, where it joins the Kidron Val- ley at the southern end of the City of David. OPHEL RIDGE Originally, the rocky hill located north of David's City, and just south of the Temple Mount. Today, the term denotes the entire eastern hill of the Old City, including the City of David, outside the southern wall. The Gihon Spring, the city's only natural perennial water source, is located low on the ridge, on the west bank of the Kidron Valley. EXECRATION TEXTS Ancient Egyptian documents in- scribed on clay figurines and bowls that, when smashed, were thought to bring ruin on enemies named therein. The execration texts date from the 19th and 18th centuries BCE. Jerusalem, then called Ir Shalem, is among the cities men- tioned in these texts. AQEDAT YITZHAK (Binding Of Isaac) According to the book of Genesis 22:1-19, the patri- arch Abraham, in a dramatic test of faith, received a divine command to journey to the land of Moriah and there sacrifice his only son, Isaac, on an altar to God. Isaac was ultimately spared, and Abraham was promised descendants "as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands of the shore". Although Jerusalem is not explicitly mentioned in the Genesis text, except in a reference to Ir Shalem, rabbinic tradition associates Moriah with the Temple Mount. TEL AL-AMARNA The ruins and tombs of Akhenaton, capital of the Central Egyptian Kingdom, built by Amenhotep IV in 1375 BCE and abandoned for Thebes just fifteen years later. Akhenaton, despite its brief period of activity, is one of the few adequately excavated Egyptian cities, and provides vital in- formation about life in Egypt and her holdings at the time. JOSHUA Joshua was one of the twelve spies sent to scout out the land of Canaan and evaluate it for conquest. Of the twelve, only two demonstrated faith in God and returned with a positive report. As a result only these two, Joshua and Caleb, were allowed to enter the land. Moses appointed Joshua as his successor to lead the people in the conquest of Canaan. Joshua is first mentioned in the To- rah in the book of Numbers. The story of Joshua continues in the fol- lowing book, Deuteronomy, and then in the book of Joshua, the first book of the Prophets. DAVID David, the King of Israel after Saul, captured Jerusalem from the Je- busites and used it as a central point from which to consolidate the loosely organized twelve tribes. While David was a brilliant politician and military leader, his personal life and court administration are controversial. David is credited with having written the Psalms, in keeping with the bibli- cal description of his devotion to God and his outstanding musical and po- etic talent. CITY OF DAVID King David's Jerusalem, situated south of the Old City walls on the eastern ridge. At this site, archae- ologists have uncovered an enormous mount built by the Canaanites but also used as a base for David's pal- ace. David reinforced the thin Ca- naanite retaining walls with an elaborate system of terraces along the mount. DAVID'S CITY King David's Jerusalem, situated south of the Old City walls on the eastern ridge. At this site, archae- ologists have uncovered an enormous mount built by the Canaanites but also used as a base for David's pal- ace. David reinforced the thin Ca- naanite retaining walls with an elaborate system of terraces along the mount. TEMPLE MOUNT The large rectangular walled-in area, located in the southeastern section of the Old City, on which the First and Second Temples stood. The mount's four retaining walls date to the Sec- ond Temple period. Of the four, the eastern and part of the southern mount walls form part of the Old City walls. Today the mount is filled with structures, including many fountains and religious sites, fore- most among them the Dome of the Rock and the smaller Al-Aqsa mosque. ARK OF THE COVENANT The ark or chest, which, according to the Bible, was constructed upon di- vine command to hold the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed. The ark was placed in the desert tabernacle and later was kept in the Holy of Holies, the most sanc- tified part of the Temple in Jerusa- lem. The fate of the ark after the de- struction of the First Temple is un- known, and has been the subject of much scholarship, legend and fan- tasy. SOLOMON (SHLOMO) Son of King David and Bathsheba, reigned from 965 - 930 BCE. Under Solomon's hand, the Is- raelite Kingdom developed into an important political entity, with Jeru- salem as its capital. Solomon's pros- perity enabled him to build exten- sively. Examples of his building in- clude the majestic First Temple and a lavish palace. In the Bible, Solomon is revered as a wise leader and judge. Later generations attributed to him the composition of the biblical books Song of Songs, Proverbs and Ecclesi- astes. SOLOMON'S PALACE King Solomon spent 13 years con- structing his magnificent palace (compared to seven for the Temple!). The book of Kings I (vii) describes the palace's construction: costly hewn-stone foundations, wooden floors, enormous supporting pillars. The complex included a throne room for passing judgement, separate quarters for the Pharaoh's daughter, and the large house constructed of cedar imported from Lebanon. TWELVE TRIBES According to biblical tradition, the twelve tribes descend from the sons and grandsons of Jacob, later named Israel. Jacob's sons are: Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Levi, Issachar, Zebu- lun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad and Asher. Ephraim and Menasseh are sons of Jacob's son Joseph. The Levites, descendants of Jacob's son Levi, are also sometimes considered a tribe, but did not receive land. During the Israelite period, the tribes constituted a religious/national con- federation under the various Judean and Israelite monarchies. LIONS Figures of lions decorated the laver (washing basin) in Solomon's Temple and in his palace throne room. Use of the lion may have been based on early associations of the lion with the House of David, or even Judah, re- ferred to as a "lion's whelp" in the book of Genesis. This symbol re- curred throughout Jewish history, and is today the symbol of Jerusa- lem. KING REHOBOAM King of Judah (c. 928-911). Under Rehoboam the once-united Israelite Kingdom split in two, due to the king's intransigence and unwilling- ness to accede to demands to be less harsh than his father, Solomon. Re- hoboam's refusal to deal more mod- erately with the population resulted in his spending the subsequent years at war with Jereboam, the king cho- sen by the northern tribes. KING SHISHAK An Egyptian king who invaded Pal- estine in 925 BCE, taking advantage of the rivalry between Rehoboam and Jereboam. Jerusalem was spared from conquest by pay-off: Rehoboam met him north of the city and paid him a handsome tribute from the Temple treasury. COHANIM Members of the priestly caste, de- scended from the family of Aaron, Moses' brother. The family of Aaron tended the Ark of the Covenant. When the Temple stood in Jerusa- lem, Cohanim were charged with performing the Temple service. This took on a new dimension during the Second Temple period, when new rules of priestly conduct were discov- ered in the Book of the Law. Today, observant Jews, who are "Cohanim" according to family tradition, con- tinue to observe certain special rules of conduct in addition to regular ob- servance. AHAB King of the northern Israelite King- dom (c. 874-852 BCE). Ahab reigned from the city of Samaria, founded by his father Omri. Ahab continued the peaceful relations initiated by his fa- ther both with Jerusalem, capital of Judah, and with Tyre in the north. The murder of Nabot arranged by his wife Jezebel, occurred during Ahab's reign (see I Kings 21). Ahab was challenged by an opposition movement led by Elijah the prophet which opposed his tyrannical rule and condoning of idolatrous prac- tices in Samaria. JEHOSHAPHAT King of Judah for 25 years during the late 9th century BCE. Jehos- haphat, deviating from the practices of his predecessor, established a peaceful relationship with the north- ern kingdom of Israel, strengthened by the marriage of King Omri's daughter, Ataliha, to his son, Je- horam. The addition of Tyre to the alliance, forming a continuum reaching from the northern Mediter- ranean port to the Red Sea, made the three an invincible economic regional power. UZZIAH King of Judah, who reigned for 52 years (late to mid 8th c. BCE). Uzziah's reign is described as a flourishing period for Judah. He fortified Jerusalem and regained control of the desert lands as far south as Eilat, building towers to safeguard transportation routes. The Bible relates that Uzziah was struck with leprosy apparently after making an incense offering in the Holy of Holies. AMOS Amos prophesied under the reigns of Judean King Uzziah and King Jere- boam of Israel. Amos resided in the northern kingdom. The Book of Amos is the third in the collection of twelve Minor Prophets. AHAZ King of Judah (mid to early 8th c. BCE), son of Jotham, grandson of Uzziah and father of Hezekiah. Ahaz allied with the Assyrian king Tiglath- Pileser, instead of joining the united forces of Aram, northern Israel and the Philistines. Ahaz made drastic changes in the Temple, including melting down Temple vessels to use for tribute to the Assyrians, and in- stalling a sundial. ISAIAH Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah. During the Assyrian threat to Hezekiah's reign, Isaiah as- sured the people of God's protection. A Jerusalem native, Isaiah used rich Jerusalem imagery in his preaching, describing contemporary pastoral scenes from around the city and sur- rounding area.The Book of Isaiah is the first in the collection of three Ma- jor Prophets. HEZEKIAH King of Judah, son of Ahaz, ascended the throne in the early 8th c. BCE, just before King Sennacherib of Assyria conquered the northern tribes. Hezekiah removed all the manifestations of idolatry that had set in during the reign of his father. Hezekiah's religious reform also con- tained a nationalist motive, namely to foster the unity of the Israelite tribes through their common con- nection to the Temple in Jerusalem. SENNACHERIB King of Assyria (c. 705-681 BCE), known for rebuilding Nineveh, the Assyrian capital. During his reign, Sennacherib was faced with a num- ber of rebellions, including two re- bellions by the Babylonians. Sen- nacherib also quelled rebellion in Syro-Palestine, taking great tribute from Hezekiah but failing to conquer Jerusalem. He is mentioned numer- ous times in the Bible and in other Jewish sources. SHILOAH Originally referring to the Gihon Spring itself, the name Shiloah was later used to designate a reservoir fed by the spring. Today Shiloah (Silwan) is the name of the Arab vil- lage that occupies the hill opposite and east of the City of David. In the 1890s, Yemenite Jews also inhabited this village, but were forced to leave due to political upheavals. MENASSEH King of Judah, son of Hezekiah, reigned during the peak of Assyrian power, over a weak Judah that was a mere Assyrian dependency. Relig- iously, Menasseh took after his grandfather, Ahaz, reinstating idola- try in the kingdom. According to II Kings 21:16, much innocent blood was shed in the conflicts between the supporters and opponents of Assyr- ian domination. The Talmud (Sanh. 10:2) states that due to his pagan practices, Menasseh has no share in the world to come. JOSIAH King of Judah (c. 640 - 609 BCE), from the young age of eight, follow- ing the assassination of his father, Amon. Under Josiah, Judah experi- enced a tremendous religious and national revival, facilitated both by the discovery of the Book of the Law and the decline of the Assyrian Em- pire, with its pagan religious influ- ence. To achieve this, Josiah invali- dated worship at local sanctuaries and instead consolidated it in the Temple. The tradition of collectively reading the Torah, observed to this day, was initiated under Josiah. JEREMIAH Jeremiah prophesied from the 13th year of the reign of Josiah when Is- rael was recuperating from the reign of Menasseh, until after the destruc- tion of Judah by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. During Zedekiah's reign, Jeremiah encouraged the king not to revolt against Babylonian oppres- sion, which he viewed as an expres- sion of divine will. The Book of Jeremiah is the second in the collec- tion of three Major Prophets. BOOK OF THE LAW A scroll found, according to the book of Kings II, during the reign of Josiah. The book formed the basis for the religious and national revival spearheaded by the king, aimed at liberating the Israelites from Assyr- ian influence. The exact content of the book is unknown, though it is thought to have incorporated central parts of the book of Deuteronomy. BABYLONIAN Babylonia is a city in southern Mesopotamia; the name Babylonia was given to a number of empires of which this city was the capital. The Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 586 BCE by Nebuchadnezzar was during the time of the Chaldean, or Neo-Babylonian empire (626-539). JEHOIACHIN The next-to-last Judean king before the destruction of Jerusalem. Just three months after ascending the throne, in 597 BCE, Jehoiachin was exiled to Babylonia by Nebuchadnez- zar. After the fall of Jerusalem ten years later, Jehoiachin's family re- gained leadership, and were later among the leaders of the first return- ees to Zion. NEBUCHADNEZZAR King of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nebuchadnezzar reigned from 626- 539 BCE. Until his father's death in 605, father and son ruled together. Nebuchadnezzar ascended the throne independently at the height of the Assyrian- Babylonian struggle for domination of Egyptian territories. In Jewish history, he is most remem- bered for destroying Jerusalem and the First Temple and exiling the city's inhabitants to Babylonia. ZEDEKIAH Zedekiah, son of Josiah and last king of Judah, was a Babylonian puppet installed by Nebuchadnezzar in place of the exiled king Jehoiachin. Not heeding Jeremiah's warning, Zede- kiah broke away from Babylonia, leading ultimately to the Babylonian invasion and destruction of the Temple. Zedekiah fled the invasion but was caught near Jericho. He was forced to witness the execution of his sons, after which he was blinded and exiled to Babylonia. PSALM 137 From the biblical Book of Psalms, Psalm 137 is dedicated to the Baby- lonian exile. The psalm opens "By the rivers of Babylon we sat down and wept when we remembered Zion". The psalm proceeds to de- scribe the captors' demand for the exiles to be joyful, to which the psalmist responds "How could we sing the Lord's song in a foreign land". Later verses express unfailing loyalty to Jerusalem, city of the Temple: "If I forget thee, O Jerusa- lem, let my right hand forget her cunning. If I do not remember thee, let my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth". EZEKIEL The third of the Major Prophets, who prophesied in the period follow- ing the exile of Jehoiachin to Baby- lonia. Ezekiel's pre-exilic prophesy- ing amounted to doomsaying and calls for repentance. After the de- struction of the Temple, Ezekiel con- soled the people, assuring them of Is- rael's restoration. Ezekiel is best known for his eerie visions, including the chariots of fire revealed as a por- tent of the imminent destruction of Judah. NINTH OF AV (Tisha B'Av) a Jewish fast day in Av, the 11th month in the Jewish calen- dar. The fast was instated to mourn the destruction of the First Temple, and later extended to include mourning for destruction of the Sec- ond Temple as well. The Ninth of Av is marked by abstention from food and pleasures, as well as a public reading of the Book of Lamentations, which tells the harrowing tale of the First Temple's destruction. CYRUS Cyrus the Great of Persia was a 6th c. BCE leader who founded the Per- sian-centered Ahaemenid Empire, which spanned from the Aegean Sea in the west to the Indus River in the east. Among the territories Cyrus conquered were Lydia, Ionia and Babylonia. As a result of this last conquest, exiled Jews living in Babylonia were able, under his lib- eral policy, to return to and rebuild Jerusalem. Cyrus is thus described in the Bible in favorable terms. In Ezra, he is an implied emissary of the God of the Israelites. In the book of Isaiah he is referred to as "annointed" and "shepherd". PERSIANS Persia is a kingdom in southwestern Asia, which has had different forms thoughout the ages. The first re- corded rulers were the Elamites, c. 3000 BCE, followed by Indo- European Iranians (c. 2000 BCE), and the Medes (728-550 BCE), who were conquered by Cyrus II the Great. Until the time of the Romans, the empire founded by Cyrus was the largest in the world. Alexander the Great conquered this empire, but native Parthinians (247 BCE - 226 AD) retook their land. The Parthini- ans were weakened by wars with the Roman Empire, and their empire eventually passed to the Sassanians. The Sassanian empire was weakened by clashes with the Byzantine em- pire, and was conquered by the Moslems in 640. Only some 900 years later, in 1502, was rule by native Iranians restored, in the form of the Safavid Dynasty. NEHEMIAH A Babylonian Jew who became the first governor of Judah after the de- struction of the First Temple. The deeds of Nehemiah, who moved to the Land of Israel c. 445 BCE, are told in the biblical book of the same name. Nehemiah occupied himself primarily with the material rebuild- ing of Jerusalem, including establish- ing dwelling places for the commu- nity there. Although Nehemiah was a lay leader who left religious matters in the hands of the religious estab- lishment, he is described in the Bible as a deeply pious man. EZRA Ezra was a priest and scribe, who was responsible for the restoration of Jewish life after Cyrus allowed Jews to return to Jerusalem from Baby- lonia. According to the Talmud, it was Ezra who instituted public To- rah readings on Mondays and Thursdays, as well as on the Sab- bath. The rabbis said of him, "If Moses had not anticipated him, Ezra would have received the Torah". HELLENIZATION Hellenization describes the process by which ancient cultures, particu- larly those of Judea and Persia, were radically influenced by Greek civili- zation yet retained their national cul- ture. This penetration began during the period of Alexander the Great and continued through the duration of the Roman Empire. Hellenization affected Jews both in Palestine and the diaspora, who adopted the Greek language, Greek names, Greek edu- cational institutions and also com- posed Greek-influenced literary, re- ligious and philosophical works. ALEXANDER THE GREAT Alexander III, King of Macedonia by birth, was one of the most accom- plished generals in world history. He established a power-base in Greece and proceeded to conquer the Per- sian Empire, western Asia Minor, the Mediterranean coast, part of Egypt and India. Alexander the Great's ex- pedition began at age 22. By the time he died, in his early 30s, his con- quests laid the foundations for Hel- lenization of the ancient world. Leg- ends about the great general began circulating even in his lifetime; to- day these stories have reached mythical proportions. According to the Midrash, Alexander the Great once visited Jerusalem and the Temple. SEPTUAGINT The Septuagint is the oldest Greek translation of the Bible, once the Bi- ble of the Christian church and still the Bible of the Greek Orthodox Church. The word Septuagint de- rives from the Latin root for "seventy" since according to legend, 72 persons, comprising six elders from each of the twelve tribes, compiled the translation. The Sep- tuagint was probably translated during the mid-third century BCE, in Alexandria, Egypt, during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. ALEXANDRIA Alexandria, once the capital of Egypt, was founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Jews settled there in the early 3rd century BCE. At times the city featured a thriving Jewish community, which peaked in the 1st c. BCE during the time of the Jewish philosopher Philo. During the Second Temple period, a sizable Al- exandrian community existed in Je- rusalem. Jewish presence in the city has continued to the present, though their numbers were severely reduced when Jews were banished from the city by the Egyptians follwoing the 1956 Sinai campaign. PTOLEMIES The Ptolemaic dynasty, based in Egypt, was founded by Ptolemy I, a Macedonian general of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemaic dynasty outlasted all other Alexandrian dy- nasties and was not conquered by the Romans until 30 BCE. The first ruler of this dynasty, Ptolemy I, captured Jerusalem in 320 BCE, on the Sab- bath, a day when the Jews did not fight. Ptolemy II is remembered for freeing many Jewish slaves and initi- ating translation of the Septuagint. Ptolemy rule in Judea ended in 181 BCE, when the Seleucids, under An- tioch III, conquered the territory af- ter years of hostility between the two powers. SELEUCIDS The Seleucid dynasty, at its largest extending from Trace to the Indian border, was founded by Seleucus I Nicator, a general of Alexander the Great. The Seleucids exercised great influence over the Middle East, largely due to their control of the Taurus Mountain passes between Anatolia and Syria. Through Se- leucid dominance, Hellenism re- mained strong in the Middle East. Antioch III, the Seleucid ruler who wrested Judea from the Ptolemies in 198 BCE, fostered good relations with the Jews. His son, however, An- tiochus IV Epiphanes, ruled against the Jews with a strong hand, leading to the Maccabee rebellion and the rise of the Jewish Hasmonean dy- nasty. JASON A high priest of the 2nd century BCE, son of Simeon II and brother of Onias III, Jason attained priesthood in 175. Unlike his traditionalist brother, Jason was responsible for increasing the trend towards Hel- lenization in Jerusalem. This policy of Jason's and his colleagues' led to the Maccabees' revolt and ultimately to the formation of the Hasmonean dynasty. A pyramidal tomb found on al-Fasi street in modern day Jerusa- lem (outside the Old City) is thought to be Jason's tomb. MACCABEES II Apocryphal book in Greek, written by the otherwise unknown Jason of Cyrene. The book is prefaced by a description of the events that led to the Maccabean revolt, namely the forced Hellenization by the Seleucids, and the corruption which surrounded the high priesthood. The main content is similar to Maccabees I, but focuses primarily on the deeds of Judah Maccabee, until his victory over the Seleucid ruler Nicanor in 164 BCE. The book portrays the hardships under the Seleucids as divine punishment for the sins of the nation. Maccabees III deals with Egyptian Jews and does not mention the Maccabees at all. Maccabees IV discusses pre- Maccabean martyrs in the style of Greek rhetoric but with interwoven Jewish motifs. The books II, III and IV Maccabees are included in the Septuagint. MODIIN Located some 17 miles northwest of Jerusalem in the Judean hills, Modiin was the home of Mattathias the Hasmonean. The rebellion of the Maccabees, in response to the de- crees of Antiochus IV Epiphanes against the Jews, began in Modiin in 167 BCE, though early on the rebels were forced to relocate. Despite the evacuation, the Hasmonean rebels continued to bury their dead there. Modiin is also depicted on the 6th c. CE Madeba map. In the modern State of Israel during the Hanukkah holiday, a torch is lit at what is thought to be the site of the tombs, and is then carried by runners to Je- rusalem. HANUKKAH Hanukkah, or dedication, is the holi- day commemorating the Maccabees' rededication of the Temple by Judah the Maccabee in 164 BCE, after it had been defiled by the Seleucids. According to legend, upon entering the Temple, the Maccabees found only enough oil to keep the Temple lamp burning for one day. By way of a miracle, it burned for eight days. This miracle is remembered every year during Hanukkah, when an eight-branched Hanukkah lamp is lit for eight days. Beginning with one candle, an additional candle is added each day. HASMONEAN KINGDOM The term Hasmonean refers to the priestly family which led the rebel- lion against the Seleucids and against the assimilated Hellenist Jews. The leaders of the rebellion were Mat- tathias and his sons Elazar, Simeon, Yohanan, Yonatan and Judah the Maccabee. The rebellion led to the establishment of an autonomous Jewish state, the Hasmonean King- dom, which at various times covered a wide area. The Hasmonean leaders themselves became Hellenized, and infighting between traditionalists and non-traditionalists resumed. These elements led to the eventual disinte- gration of the kingdom and external domination in the form of Roman conquest. PHARISEES The traditionalist Jews of Second Temple days who strove to protect Judaism by maintaining the purity of the religion against the threat of for- eign influences. "Pharisees" derives from the Hebrew "prushim" mean- ing "separated". The Pharisees were those who took the priestly vow of purity and thus kept apart from oth- ers. They worked to make Judaism accessible to the people, and favored dissolution of the priestly hegemony. The Pharisees' approach formed the bedrock of post-Second Temple Tal- mudic Judaism and the 613 com- mandments observed by traditional Jews to this day. SADDUCEES The Hellenized Jews of Second Temple days who comprised and supported the priestly class. The aristocratic Sadducees, who wielded much power including control of the rich Temple treasuries, were inter- ested in maintaining the status quo. They felt threatened by the attempts of the Pharisees to democratize Juda- ism and obviate the need for priestly intermediaries. The Sadducees openly collaborated with the Greek and Roman conquerers of Israel. The term Sadducees derives from the Hebrew "tzadokim" or descendants of the high priest Tzadok. POMPEY One of the outstanding generals and statesmen of the late Roman Repub- lic in the first c. BCE. Pompey was a colleague of Julius Caesar, and along with Crassus the three formed the First Triumvirate. Pompey carried out numerous military campaigns, and established Roman rule in SyrioPalestine. He conquered Jerusa- lem from the Hasmoneans in 63 BCE, thanks to the cooperation of the Sadducees, at the time led by Hy- racanus II. HYRACANUS II Hyracanus (103-30 BCE) was ap- pointed high priest during the rule of his mother Shlomtzion and was thus regarded as heir to the throne. His older brother Judah Aristobolus II, however, undermined his power, and appointed himself king and high priest. Aristobulus lost his power completely when Pompey conquered Jerusalem, as he favored Hyracanus. Aristobolus and his sons attacked Hyracanus repeatedly, but failed. Hyracanus' power-base finally stabi- lized with the ascension of Julius Caesar. In addition to appointing him high priest, Caesar gave him additional territories, as a gesture of thanks for Hyracanus' help during his troubles in Egypt. ARISTOBULUS II Aristobulus was a Sadducee and the last independent Hasmonean king. Though his younger brother, Hyra- canus, was appointed king, Aristobu- lus tried from early on to usurp his power. Aristobulus declared war on his brother upon their mother's death, but was unable to prevail. Ul- timately, Pompey sided with Hyra- canus, and Aristobulus and his fam- ily were taken captive to Rome. HOLY OF HOLIES The innermost Temple chamber and most sacred part of the Temple in Jerusalem, separated from the outer sanctuary (heichal) by a large cur- tain and gold chain. The Holy of Ho- lies was built on a raised platform, and housed the Ark of the Covenant. All but the high priest were forbid- den to enter therein, on pain of death. The high priest was allowed to enter only on the holiest day of the year, Yom Kippur. Observant Jews to this day do not ascend the Temple Mount for fear of treading on the ground of the Holy of Holies, the ex- act location of which is unknown. CAESAR Julius Caesar was one of the greatest and most celebrated Roman gener- als. He formed the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus, and con- quered Gaul between 50-58 BCE. In 49, when the Roman Senate ordered him to lay down his arms in a sym- bolic act of refusal he crossed the Rubicon, sparking the Roman Civil War. For the next six years, the dic- tator Caesar was engaged in a num- ber of wars, but his career was cut short when, on the ides of March, 44 BCE, he was assassinated in Rome. HEROD Herod the Great was the Roman king of Judah from 37 BCE - 4 BCE. Al- though an Arab by descent (son of Antipater, an Edomite, and a Naba- tean mother), Herod was a practising Jew. He began as governor of the Galilee, and was later nominated as king of Judea by the Roman senate. Herod built fortresses, cities, aque- ducts and public buildings, through- out the Hellenized world. The rebuilt Second Temple in Jerusalem was the most impressive of these creations. In addition to his building, Herod is remembered for his cruelty and men- tal instability, which increased with age. For example, he killed his wife Mariame and her two sons, brother, grandfather and mother, for reasons of jealousy, although he already had nine other wives. ANTIGONUS II The youngest son of Aristobulus II and last heir to the Hasmonean throne, Antigonus was exiled to Rome with the rest of the royal fam- ily. After his father's death, he ar- gued before Caesar his right to the Judean throne. Caesar refused, pre- ferring Antipater II. After Caesar's and Antipater's deaths, Antigonus entered Jerusalem where he ruled from 40-37 BCE. Herod, Antipater's son, escaped Antigonus' forces, but Hyracanus, still on the scene, was caught and had his ears cut off. Herod reconquered all of the Galilee by 38, but Jerusalem fell only in 37. Antigonus was sent to Antioch, where Mark Antony ordered him beheaded. WESTERN WALL While other sites are sanctified and venerated, the Western Wall represents the only true Jewish "holy site". As part of the Temple Mount - the location of the First and Second Jewish Temples for about 1,000 years - the Western Wall is associated with the holiness of the Temple itself. The Western Wall, as we see it today, is the remnant of one of four retaining walls which supported the platform upon which the Second Temple complex was constructed under the rule of King Herod. Since the time of the destruction, when Jerusalem was only 1,000 years old, Jews have prayed at the walls of the Temple Mount. The Western Wall has been the central focus of Jewish prayer for over 700 years - since the days when the current Jewish Quarter became the Jewish neighborhood of the city. JAFFA GATE The only west-facing gate into the walled Old City. The name Jaffa Gate derives from the gate's location at the start of the highway to the port city of Jaffa. An inscription by the gate states that it was built under Suleiman the Magnificent in 1538-39 CE. See "city gates". AQUEDUCT Deriving from the Latin "aqua"- wa- ter, and "ducere" - to lead, an aque- duct is an artificial conduit for carry- ing water. The first aqueducts were pre-Roman, such as the tunnel cut by King Hezekiah to bring water into Jerusalem. The greatest aqueducts of the ancient world, however, are the Roman aqueducts, such as Herod's aqueduct constructed to bring water from Solomon's Pool, near Bethle- hem, to Jerusalem. BETHLEHEM An ancient city south of Jerusalem, mentioned as early as the 14th c. BCE Tel el-Amarna letters. Accord- ing to biblical tradition, Bethlehem was the burial place of the matriarch Rachel, and the home of King David. The Jewish population fled after the destruction of the First Temple, re- turning to Bethlehem and remaining until the time of Bar Kokhba. Based on gospels Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in a cave in Bethlehem. The Church of the Nativity was built over the cave by Julian (an earlier church built by Helena was destroyed). This church is one of the oldest and most famous in all of Christendom. Many monasteries were also established in the vicinity over the centuries. Today Bethlehem, a Christian and Arab town, maintains close cultural and economic ties with Jerusalem. JOHN THE BAPTIST Son of Zacharias, a Temple priest, and daughter of Elizabeth, cousin of Jesus' mother the Virgin Mary, whose story appears in the Gospel according to Mark. John the Baptist was an independent, ascetic preacher who wandered the Galilee, urging people to repentance and spiritual renewal, signified by baptism in the Jordan River. His disciples included Jesus, Peter and Andrew. John was beheaded by Herod Antipas. GALILEE The Galilee, or "HaGalil" in He- brew, is the northernmost, hilly area of ancient Palestine and modern Is- rael. Its major cities are Tzefat, in the Upper Galilee and Nazareth in the Lower Galilee. The population of the Galilee underwent a transition from Canaanite to Israelite during the Israelite period. When the king- dom united under David and Solo- mon split, the area became part of the northern Kingdom of Israel. The Galilee was also the domain of Jesus and the site of most of the miracles recounted in the New Testament. Af- ter the destruction of the Second Temple the Galilee became a center of Jewish activity, until the 6th cen- tury CE, when, under Arab rule, Jewish vitality there began to wane. In the Middle Ages, Tzefat became a center of Jewish Kabbalistic practice. PROCURATORS Procurators were financial agents of the Roman government, who, from the time of Augustus (31 BCE - 14 CE) served as officials in the admini- stration of Rome's provinces and in various local administrative tasks. In the cases of minor provinces, procu- rators were given complete gover- norship and military control, but were subject to the authority of a nearby major province. Such was the position of Pontius Pilate, a procura- tor of Judah who was subject to the governor of the Syrian province. CAESAREA An ancient seaside city founded by a fourth century BCE ruler of Sidon. Herod enlarged the city, developed the harbor and built a large stadium, a theater and an aqueduct which were unearthed in modern archaeo- logical excavations. The procurators ruled from Caesarea when it was the capital of the Roman Byzantine Empire, during which time it had a very divided Jewish and gentile population. Vespasian and Julius Severus also used the city as a base during the various Jewish-Roman wars. The city was rebuilt by Louis IX of France to serve as an impor- tant center during the Crusader pe- riod. The ruins of ancient Caesarea are open to the public, and perform- ances are held in the large, open-air theater. TALMUD There are two books known as the Talmud: the Babylonian Talmud, and the smaller, Jerusalem Talmud. Both are compilations of rabbinic commentaries on the Mishna (collected oral teachings) in the form of legal discussion and legend. The Mishna is presented, following which are the commentaries, written in Aramaic and known as "Gemara". The Talmud thus comprises the Mishna and Gemara. The Babylo- nian Talmud serves as the basis for the law that is binding on observant Jews. The Babylonian Talmud is di- vided into six books, containing 39 tractates. Written in the diaspora, unlike the Jerusalem Talmud, the Babylonian Talmud takes legal precedence over the Jerusalem ver- sion. The word Talmud, being a col- lection of teachings, literally means "learning". SANHEDRIN The chief religious, political and ju- dicial body in Palestine during the Roman period, both before and after the destruction of the Second Tem- ple. The first mention of the term Sanhedrin is by Josephus in 57 BCE, denoting a forerunner of the Great Sanhedrin. After the destruction of the Temple, the Sanhedrin moved to Yavneh, and after the failure of Bar Kochba, to the Galilee. The laws governing the Sanhedrin are enu- merated in a Talmudic tractate of the same name. PASSOVER The week-long springtime holiday commemorating the redemption of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt. Passover is also considered a secon- dary New Year. In the time of the Temple, on Passover as on the other pilgrimage holidays of Sukkot and Shavuot, the people of Israel would ascend to the Temple to bring sacri- ficial offerings. Today the holiday is marked by the Seder meal ceremony, as well as refraining from eating leavened food for the entire week. Flat "matza" crackers are eaten in- stead of bread. The Seder consists of telling the story of the Exodus, and is characterized both by joyful cele- bration and solemn remembrance. HEROD ANTIPAS Son of Herod the Great by his Sa- maritan wife. Herod left Antipas only the Galilee, but Antipas appealed to Augustus who made him tetrarch over Peraea (Judean Transjordan) as well. Herod Antipas ruled from his capital, Tiberias, on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. When he married his brother's wife illegally, the public, including John the Baptist, turned against him. For this reason, and perhaps because of the latter's growing popularity, Antipas had him beheaded. Antipas was exiled by Caesar after being badmouthed by Agrippa, his enemy in Rome. EUCHARIST The Communion ceremony contains material signs, or sacraments, which Christians believe were ordained by Jesus to symbolize spiritual gifts. The Eucharist, consisting of the commun- ion wafer and wine, is the chief sac- rament of the ceremony. The Eucharist tradition derives from the Last Supper, when Jesus blessed the bread and wine saying "this is my body," and "this is my blood." Dif- ferent churches espouse varying doc- trines regarding physical alteration of the Eucharist within the body, as well as other eucharistic differences. MOUNT OF OLIVES The mountain range east of the Old City and divided from it by the Kidron Valley. The range is men- tioned both in the Bible and the Gos- pels. First and Second Temple tombs are located on the mount, and Jewish tradition holds that from its peak, the dead will be called to rise. Jesus camped on one of the mountain's three peaks on his way to Jerusalem, and spent his last night at the foot of the mountain in the Garden of Geth- semane. The Mount of Olives is a fa- vored burial site of pious Jews, since according to Jewish tradition the Messiah will enter Jerusalem from the mount to awaken the dead. The mount affords a stunning view of the Old City to the West and the Jordan Valley, including the Dead Sea, to the east. GETHSEMANE Located on the Mount of Olives, the Garden of Gethsemane is, according to tradition, the site where Jesus spent his last night in prayer. Geth- semane derives from the Hebrew "gat shemanim" or oil press, imply- ing an olive grove with an on-site press. The exact location of the gar- den is unknown, though the Empress Helena, and after her many churches including the Armenian, Greek, Latin and Russian, placed it on the mount's western slope. JUDAS Judas Iscariot was one of the twelve Apostles, or followers of Jesus. Ac- cording to the Gospels, Judas turned Jesus over to the priests, who in turn brought him to Pontius Pilate for verdict. Judas betrayed Jesus by a kiss and addressing him as "master", thus indicating his identity to the armed guard accompanying him. The name Judas later came to be synonymous with "traitor". GOSPELS The Gospels are the four books that open the New Testament and tell the story of the life and death of Jesus. The authorship of the four Gospels is attributed respectively to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the four evangelists. The Latin evangelium means "good news" or "good tell- ing"; from this derived the Anglo Saxon term gospel (god-spell), which means the same. The Gospels com- prise approximately one half of the New Testament. PRAETORIUM Residence of the praetor (judicial of- ficer) or governor of ancient Roman times who presided administratively over a designated geographic area. According to the Gospels, Pontius Pilate's seat of judgement was lo- cated within or adjacent to the prae- torium, for that is where he interro- gated Jesus. Scholars are disagree as to the location of the praetorium, some placing it in the Antonia For- tress and others placing it in the former palace of Herod, near today's Jaffa Gate. GOLGOTHA The location of the Holy Sepulcher and site of the crucifixion. "Golgotha" derives from the Hebrew word for skull (gulgolet). The term was translated into Latin as Calvary, or place of the bald scalp, probably a reference to a barren hill where exe- cutions were held, but also associated with a tradition that holds that Adam's skull is buried there. HEBREW CHRISTIAN The earliest Christians were Jews who believed that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. In this sense they were viewed not as apostates, but as a Jewish sect. Among the various be- lievers in Christ were several con- tending groups including the He- brews. Of these, the followers of Paul's teachings became dominant. The Hebrew Christians, being ac- cepted neither by the Church nor by normative Judaism, became margi- nalized and eventually disappeared. Judaism and belief in Christ became mutually exclusive. PAUL THE APOSTLE Also known as Saint Paul and Saul of Tarsus. Paul, born a Jew, was bap- tized c. 34 CE. He subsequently un- dertook the task of encouraging con- version, mainly of gentiles of the ori- ent, to Christianity. At the same time, Peter the Apostle took on con- version of Jews. Paul emphasized that people are justified not by ad- herence to the Torah, but by faith in Christ. Much of his teachings were conveyed in letters to churches with which he was affiliated. HEROD AGRIPPAS Grandson of Herod the Great and son of Antipater. Herod Agrippas was friendly with Caligula, and with the latter's rise to power was granted power over territory in Judea. In 41 CE, under the emperor Claudius, he became king over all of Judah, re- taining this title through 44 CE. He supported Judaism, and devised re- pressive policies against the Chris- tians, including their leader Peter the Apostle. At the same time he main- tained good relations with Rome. During his rule over Judah, Herod began fortifying the vulnerable northern portion of Jerusalem's city wall. However, the Romans did not allow him to complete the work. MASADA Located on a mountaintop in the Ju- dean Desert, the first Masada was a small fortress built by Hasmonean King Alexander Yannai. In place of the Hasmonean structures, Herod built a massive royal citadel on the mountaintop, replete with an elabo- rate water system, two luxurious palaces, a large bath-house, store- houses and a myriad of other struc- tures. Masada was taken over by the Jewish rebels of the 66 CE uprising. The tenacious rebels occupying the mountaintop refused to surrender, even after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE. In perhaps the most dramatic military operation in Jewish history, after resisting their Roman besiegers for two years, the rebels collectively committed suicide in 73 CE, prefer- ring death to slavery. PELLA During Roman rule of Palestine, the area west of the Jordan was divided into three provinces: Judea, Samaria and the Galilee. East of the Jordan lay two districts: Decapolis and Paraea, of which Pella was the capi- tal. Paraean towns were occupied mostly by Jews, but some gentiles lived there as well. During the Jewish revolt in 66 CE, the Christian com- munity of Jerusalem moved tempo- rarily to Pella to escape the instabil- ity. They returned to Jerusalem after the fall of the Second Temple. VESPASIAN Titus Flavius Vespasianus, Emperor of Rome. He succeeded Nero and ruled from 69-79 CE. Vespasian was the first to achieve the title of Em- peror through military accomplish- ments alone, and not through inheri- tance. One such military accom- plishment was Vespasian's successful repression of the first Jewish rebel- lion in Judea, during which he gained control of almost all of Judea except for Jerusalem. TITUS Named after his father, Vespasian, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (II) was made responsible for the Jewish war upon his father's ascension to the throne. A million Jews are said to have died in the brutal fighting which culminated in the capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. An arch commemorating Titus' victory was placed at the entrance to the Roman Forum. Upon his return to Rome, Ti- tus was rewarded with control over the Praetorian Guard, Vespasian's imperial army. TRIUMPHAL ARCH An honorary monument in the form of a free-standing arch, erected to commemorate a person or event. Most of the triumphal arches known were built during the Roman Em- pire. In the early 4th c. CE, 36 such arches were scattered throughout Rome. Three of these have survived: the Arch of Titus - depicting Titus with the Temple spoils including the 7-branched gold Temple lamp; the Arch of Septimus Severus, in honor of his victory over the Parthians; and the Arch of Constantine. YAVNEH A harbor city located north of Ash- kelon near the Mediterranean coast, Yavneh was inhabited continuously from the Early Bronze Age to the Byzantine period. It is mentioned in the Bible, and according to the book of Maccabees, had a Jewish popula- tion during the Hasmonean period. When the Romans conquered Jerusa- lem in 70 CE, Rabbi Johannan ben Zakkai asked Vespasian to grant him the city. In accordance with his re- quest, the Sanhedrin was removed from Jerusalem to Yavneh and re- mained there until 132 CE. During this period, Yavneh achieved a status close to that of Jerusalem. The San- hedrin was subsequently transferred to the Galilee. By the 5th c. the city was predominantly Christian. HADRIAN Greek-loving Emperor of Rome from 117-138. Recognized also as a gifted architect and poet, Hadrian was among the most cultured of the Ro- man emperors. While refined and peace-loving, Hadrian was also a strict military disciplinarian. Accord- ing to rabbinic literature, Hadrian universally banned circumcision in the Empire, apparently because he was repulsed by all forms of physical mutilation. The ban sparked the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132. AELIA CAPITOLINA The name of the Roman province es- tablished on the ruins of Jerusalem in 135 CE. The province was named after a shrine dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The shrine, in turn, was named the Capitoline Triad, because it was built on Capi- toline Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The grouping of these three gods together is probably based on the Greek belief that Hera and Athena - the Greek equivalents of Juno and Minerva - were the wife and daughter of Jupiter (Zeus). The name Aelia was retained until Chris- tianity became the official religion in the 4th century under Roman rule. SHIMEON BAR KOCHBA Shimeon Bar Kochba was leader of the Bar Kochba revolt (132-135 CE), which was a response to the Emperor Hadrian's attempts to integrate the Jews into the Roman Empire by forced Hellenization. Hadrian pro- hibited circumcision and erected a Temple of Jupiter over the Jewish Temple ruins. The Jews rebelled against these measures, with strict militarist Shimeon Bar Kochba at their head. The name Bar Kochba, or "son of a star" probably awarded him during the revolt, has messianic overtones based on Numbers 24:17, as does Bar Kochba's self- proclaimed title "nasi". It is unclear, however, to what extent Bar Kochba was actually perceived as the Mes- siah. SEPTIMUS SEVERUS Roman Emperor from 193-211 CE, a time of relative quiet in Roman Jeru- salem. Severus was a despot, the first of many in the later Roman Empire. He eliminated his political rivals, re- duced the power of the Senate rela- tive to that of the army and ignored the formerly influential Roman aris- tocracy. CONSTANTINE Constantine the Great, Roman em- peror from 311- 337 CE. Constantine was the first practising Christian Roman emperor. What began as a tolerated religion stipulated in the Edict of Milan in 313, ultimately be- came the official religion of the state. Although he was probably baptized only in the last year of his life, Con- stantine considered himself a Chris- tian much earlier, and attributed his successes to his faith. Constantine's view of himself as God's chosen ser- vant influenced church-state rela- tions for centuries to come. Among Constantine's Christian activities was the convening of the Council of Nicaea. Constantine also rebuilt and enlarged Constantinople, capital of the eastern and western Roman Empire under his rule. BYZANTIUM The capital city of the eastern Roman Empire. Due to its position at the en-trance to the Black Sea on either side of the Bosporous Strait, Byzantium is located in both Europe and Asia. The city was founded by the Greeks in the late 8th century BCE. It came under Persian rule in 512. In 324, Constan-tine the Great made Byzantium his capital city, renaming it New Rome. Later, in 330, he renamed the city Constantinople, and it became the seat of the Roman Empire. In 381 CE Constantinople became the seat of a Patriarch second only to the Pope in Rome. Today the city is called Istan-bul. It is the largest city and port in modern-day Turkey and remains the capital city of the Orthodox Church. COUNCIL OF NICAEA In the first centuries of the millen- nium, bishops from around the Christian world would gather to make theological and administrative decisions for the church. They usu- ally convened in capitals of the Ro- man provinces. Bishops were effec- tive local leaders in religious and practical matters. When they met, they constituted something like a senate of the church. The Council of Nicaea, convened by the Emperor Constantine, was held in 325 in Ni- caea, near Byzantium. Three docu- ments have survived from this council: the Nicene Creed, the Syn- odal Letter and a collection of twenty canons. CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHER The church built upon the site of Je- sus' grave. The first structure on the site was a temple of Venus. In 326, Constantine destroyed this temple and commissioned a church complex in its place. The church complex was completed in 335. The church was partially damaged in 614 by the Per- sians and a more modest complex was erected in its stead. The church was destroyed again in 1009 by the "Mad Caliph" Hakim. Constantine Monamacos began rebuilding the church in 1048 with a timber ro- tunda. In 1099 the Crusaders built a Romanesque church over the ruins, based on the former design. Today the church has a chapel area which contains a number of shrines divided among the Latins, Greeks, Armeni- ans, Syrians and Copts. The area of Jesus' crypt, the Holy Sepulcher ite- self, is a common area. The final five stations of the Via Dolorosa are lo- cated on the church grounds. TRUE CROSS The actual cross on which Jesus was crucified. The Christian Bible does not discuss the fate of the cross, but four legends tell of its reappearance. In three of them, Helena finds the cross either independently, with the help of the Bishop Macarius, or by divine intervention. In the fourth version, attributed to St. James, the Empress Prontica, wife of the Em- peror Claudius, gains possession of the cross and uses it to revive her de- ceased daughter. COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON Held in 451 CE, the Council of Chal- cedon was the fourth church council, held at Chalcedon in Asia Minor. The council was convened by Mar- cian, Emperor of Byzantium, to dis- cuss a contemporary case of heresy (that of Eutyches of Constantinople), as well as a number of theological matters, written up in the Chalcedo- nian Definition. Between 500-600 bishops attended the council. JULIAN Julian the Apostate was Emperor of Rome from 361- 363 CE. From childhood Julian loathed Christian- ity, which he associated with descen- dants of Constantine the Great who had killed his father in an effort to keep power in the family line. As an adult, he supported his choice of pa- ganism with philosophic justification, but his religious zeal turned quickly to fanaticism. Indeed, Julian's reign is characterized by his persecution and suppression of the Christians under his rule. As part of his efforts to weaken Christianity, Julian fa- vored the Jews on occasion, and some sources indicate that he sup- ported the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. Julian was killed just 20 months after he took office, in a battle against the Per- sians. After his death, Christian life in the Roman Empire was revived. JOVIAN Jovian was Emperor of Rome from 363-364, succeeding Julian after his death in battle. Jovian successfully extricated the Roman army from the hopeless war against the Persians. Julian had initiated the war more for personal gain and glory than mili- tary expediency or necessity. Jovian, a Christian, suppressed the pagan practices that had taken root under Julian. He also provided assistance to the Christian institutions that had suffered under his predecessor. THEODOSIUS II Eastern Roman emperor from 408- 450. Theodosius II issued a code of laws known as the Theodosian code, had a wall built around the city of Constantinople and established a university there. He also led military expeditions against a number of the empire's enemies, including the Per- sians, and the Vandals of Africa and the Huns, whose many invasions wreaked havoc in the Danubian provinces. Also during Theodosius' reign, a certain instability prevailed in the Christian world around the doctrines of Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople. PATRIARCHAL SEE See derives from the Latin "sedes" meaning seat or throne. A see is the official seat of a bishop, usually lo- cated in the Cathedral of the Diocese. A Patriarchal See is a chief see of Christendom, with jurisdiction over bishops of surrounding territory as well. The Council of Nicaea recog- nized three chief sees of the Roman Empire: Rome, Alexandria and An- tioch. Two more sees, Constantinople and Jerusalem, gained recognition at the Council of Chalcedon. Today a number of Patriarchal Sees have been added, including Russia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria and Georgia. MADEBA MAP Mosaic map of Jerusalem found on the floor of a 6th-century church in Madeba, Jordan in 1884, portraying the city from a bird's-eye view look- ing east. The map depicts the biblical Holy Land and neighboring areas, with accompanying Greek texts. The scale of the map is inconsistent, with more important areas depicted in larger format. Jerusalem is accord- ingly depicted in great detail. The Cardo Maximus, Mount Zion, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and the Nea Church are among those portrayed in the map's Jerusalem segment. CHOSROES II Chosroes the Victorious was a Sas- sanian king of Persia who expanded the Persian Empire more than any other ruler. Chosroes invaded Meso- potamia twice and the second time, in 613, when General Shahrbaraz led his forces, Damascus was taken. Je- rusalem fell one year later in 614, and the Holy Sepulcher was dam- aged. Chosroes accumulated great wealth from booty and taxes. His love for his Armenian Christian wife was a favorite subject of Persian po- ets. Chosroes was finally defeated by the Byzantines and executed in 628. MOHAMMED The prophet of Islam, Mohammed was born of the tribe of Qoraysh in the town of Mecca in the sixth cen- tury CE. Mohammed began preach- ing in about 613, but fellow Meccans, including members of his own tribe, rejected his teachings and ultimately brought about his migration to Medina in 622. According to Moslem faith, during the period of his preaching the Koran was revealed to him in piecemeal fashion. Moham- med and his followers fought a num- ber of religiously significant wars against his Meccan opponents. In 630 he returned to finally conquer Mecca. After Mohammed's death, the Koran was recorded, and his followers spread his teachings. Today Islam has more adherents than any other monotheistic religion. ABU BAKR Abu Bakr, a Meccan merchant, was one of Mohammed's first supporters and eventually became the first ca- liph, or successor to the prophet. He is revered in Islam for his unshake- able faith in Mohammed, for which he was given the name al-Siddiq - the Veracious. He accompanied the prophet on all his campaigns and in certain situations he also advised him. 'OMAR IBN AL-KHATTAB 'Omar, the second caliph, known in the west as "Saint Paul of Islam", is considered the founder of the Islamic empire. 'Omar's conquered Jerusa- lem in 638 CE, marking the begin- ning of Islam in the city. 'Omar had been an opponent of Islam who per- secuted many of Mohammed's fol- lowers. According to tradition, upon hearing some verses of the Koran read in his sister Fatima's house, he decided suddenly to convert to Islam. He established a family connection with Mohammed when he gave him his daughter, Hafsa, in marriage. Under 'Omar Islam developed at a breathtaking pace. In addition to his vast territorial conquests, including Jerusalem, 'Omar set up the gov- ernance of the empire, and founded a number of Moslem institutions in- cluding the Ramadan pilgrimage, punishments for drunkenness and adultery and the office of qadi. MECCA Located on the Arabian peninsula, Mecca is the birthplace of the prophet Mohammed and the central pilgrimage city of Islam. Every year, millions of Moslems undertake the Haj, or the pilgrimage journey to Mecca. During the visit, they walk around the q'aba seven times (tawaf). Even before the advent of Islam, Mecca was a thriving pilgrimage city, since the sacred status of the q'aba predates Islamic times. Today Mecca is the religious capital of Saudi Arabia. SURA Term referring to chapters of the Koran, each containing one of Mo- hammed's revelations. Some of the suras were revealed in Mecca and some in Medina. The suras are of varying length, and are arranged in the Koran more or less in order of longest to shortest, as opposed to chronologically. The authorized Ko- ran contains 114 suras. SOPHRONIUS Born in Damascus, St. Sophronius was a monk in Egypt who immi- grated to Jerusalem in 619 where he resided in the Theodosius Monastery. In 633 Sophronius went to Alexan- dria to combat the religious doctrine of that city's Patriarch, and also to Constantinople on a similar mission. Upon returning to Jerusalem, he was declared Patriarch, a title which he held from 634-638. During this time he published the most famous of his many writings, the "Synodical Let- ter" addressing the two natures in Christ. His Christmas sermon of 634 indicates that Bethlehem was already in the hands of the Moslems at that time. Sophronius died one year fol- lowing the surrender of Jerusalem to the caliph 'Omar. DOME OF THE ROCK The largest, most impressive struc- ture on the Temple Mount, the Dome of the Rock is the golden-domed mosque which dominates the Old City skyline. The structure was built by the Umayyad ruler 'Abd al-Malik, around the rock from where the prophet Mohammed was thought to have ascended to heaven. The Dome of the Rock is one of the first major examples of Islamic architecture. Its octagonal form symbolizes the tran- sition between the rock, representing the earth, and the round dome, sym- bolizing heaven. Although the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is consid- ered the meeting place between heaven and earth, Mecca remains the holiest place for Moslems. QADI A judge who rules according to Moslem law (Shari'ah) in all matters - family, civil and criminal. The qadi must be a Moslem scholar with the status of "'adl" or "blameless". 'ALI 'Ali ben Abu Talib was a cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed's, by mar- riage to his daughter Fatima. He is recognized by all Moslems as the fourth caliph of Islam. 'Ali helped Mohammed to flee from Mecca to Medina. He was also present at a number of the central battles of Is- lam. 'Ali is revered almost as a saint by Shi'ite Moslems, and is referred to by them as "wali Allah" or the sa- cred friend of God. Many Shi'ite leg- ends revolve around 'Ali's threefold character as imama, warrior and saint. CRUSADES A series of Christian military expe- ditions launched from Europe in 1095, and headed for Jerusalem. No one factor among the social and po- litical complexities of the period can account for the declaration of the first crusade at the Council of Cler- mont in France, or explain the cru- sades' cruel and zealous nature. But the stated goal of the first crusade was to protect the eastern empire from the Seljuq Turks, and to wrest Holy Jerusalem from Moslem hands. Of the many fortresses erected for this purpose throughout what is Is- rael, Lebanon and Syria, many still exist. TEMPLARS The Templars or the "Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solo- mon" were one of the major military orders of early Christianity. The Templar order originated in 1118 when a knight of Campagne and eight of his companions vowed to protect pilgrims en route to the Holy Land. In Jerusalem, the Templars' quarters were located on the Temple Mount. In 1128 they were officially recognized by the Council of Troyes, and quickly grew in importance and wealth, acquiring property through- out Christendom. The material suc- cesses of the Templars eventually led to their ruin, as a covetous opponent tried to undermine the order with charges of blasphemy, sodomy and heresy, leading to its suppression by the Church. HOSPITALLER KNIGHTS The "Knights of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem" received papal sanction following the first crusade. Originally devoted to providing hospitality for Crusaders and pilgrims, the Hospitallers ex- panded their mission in the 12th cen- tury to provision of care for the sick. In addition to conquering Rhodes in 1309, the Hospitaller Knights par- ticipated in many of the Crusader battles. With the demise of the Tem- plars, the Hospitallers' wealth in- creased. In 1530 the Hospitallers re- ceived sovereignty over Malta, and are thus also known as the "Knights of Malta". SECOND CRUSADE Provoked by the fall of the Latin State Edessa in 1144, the second Crusade was launched in 1147 by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, and led by Louis VII of France and the Em- peror Conrad III. The second Cru- sade failed in its mission to stabilize the Crusader Kingdom. LATIN STATES During the 20 years following the first Crusade, four Latin states were established by the Crusaders along the Mediterranean coast of Syria and Palestine. The states: Antioch, Tripoli, Jerusalem and Edessa, were intended to help stabilize the Cru- saders' precarious position in the Middle East. EASTERN CHRISTIAN Members of the various member- churches of the Orthodox Church, also called the "Eastern Greek" or "Greco-Russian" Church. The Or- thodox Church, united by its recog- nition of the primacy of the Patriarch of Constantinople, grew out of the Church of the Byzantine Empire. The breach between Rome and Con- stantinople occurred gradually, but is considered to have been finalized by 1054. Since 1453, the year of Con- stantinople's fall to the Turks, the Russian Church has been the domi- nant Orthodox church. THIRD CRUSADE The third Crusade (1189-1192) was launched in response to Salah a-Din's takeover of Jerusalem in 1187. Em- peror Frederick Barbarossa, Richard I of England, and Philip II of France all participated. More successful than the second Crusade, the fighters of the third Crusade managed to re- gain considerable territory, for the most part Mediterranean coastal cities. Jerusalem remained under the control of Salah a-Din. FOURTH CRUSADE The Fourth Crusade, launched in 1202, set out originally for Egypt, but Boniface of Montserrat and the Ve- netians deflected it to Constantino- ple. As a result, a Latin Empire with its base in Constantinople was estab- lished in 1204, and the eastern and western churches were temporarily reunited. Ultimately, however, the bitterness between the churches in- creased, further weakening the east- ern empire in the face of Moslem ag- gression. JOSEPHUS FLAVIUS (c. 37-100) Jewish priest and scholar who documented the Jewish/Roman history of his time, primarily the Jewish revolt of 66-70. Josephus was born Joseph Ben Matithias and only later became a Roman citizen. Much of what is known about the period derives from his writings, the most central of which are History of the Jewish War, the Antiquities of the Jews and Against Apion. ANTONIA FORTRESS The Antonia Ridge lay north of a hill located at the northwestern side of the Temple. Since the hill was higher than the Temple Mount itself, the northwestern approach was the Temple's most vulnerable side. Herod truncated the hill, rendering it the same height as the Temple Mount, and dug a moat on its north- ern and western sides. Upon the rock platform formed by the moat, Herod built the Antonia Fortress, named af- ter Mark Antony, Herod's patron. According to Josephus and other sources, the Antonia was an enor- mous structure with four towers. The Lithostrotos, or paved area where Jesus' trial is said to have taken place, was located in the former moat. CARDO Cardo is Latin for "axis". The Cardo Maximus was thus main north-south street of the Roman city Aelia Capi- tolina. The original Cardo was a broad, short street in the northern part of the city, originating near the Damascus gate. The Cardo featured two sidewalks, protected by pillar- supported roofs. In the sixth century, the Cardo was extended to the south- ern city wall, to connect the Church of the Holy Sepulcher with the Nea Church, built by the Emperor Justin- ian. Part of the later Cardo's original pavement has been uncovered by ar- chaeological excavation, and can be traversed by those visiting the city today. NEA CHURCH The Nea church was built under the Emperor Justinian in 543, in honor of the Virgin Mary. Since a church in her honor had already been erected, the new church was called the New Church of St. Mary, Mother of God, known simply as the Nea. The church was located in the modern Jewish quarter, adjacent to the Cardo, near today's southern wall, and appears on the Madeba Map. Its remains were uncovered during ex- cavations of the Old City and indi- cate that it was built along the con- tours of a hill sloping into the Tyro- pean Valley. The circumstances of the Nea's destruction are a matter of dispute. One school maintains that it was destroyed in 614 during the Persian conquest, while others hold that Moslems destroyed it at the turn of the 9th century. UMAYYAD The Umayyad dynasty was founded in 661 CE by Abu Sufyan, a family from the Meccan tribe of Moham- med, the Kuraysh. The founding of the Umayyad dynasty signified the transition of the caliphate from a he- reditary position to an elected office. 'Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law was re- jected as fourth caliph and the first Umayyad ruler, Mu'awiyah, was elected in his place, evoking much criticism from the Moslem religious establishment. The Umayyad dy- nasty fell in 750, following a number of revolts, one of which resulted in the founding of the 'Abbasid dy- nasty. In 756, a second Umayyad dy- nasty was founded in Cordoba, Spain, by one of the surviving mem- bers of the royal family. DAMASCUS Today the capital of the Syrian Arab Republic, Damascus' is an ancient city, held by some to be the oldest in the world. Damascus' most vital pe- riod was between 661-750 CE, when it was the capital of the 'Ummayad Caliphate. It remained the chief city of Islam until the rise of the 'Abbas- sids. Damascus lies on both banks of the Barada River, at the base and on the lower slopes of the Qasiyun Mountain. The Great Mosque of Damascus, built by 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the fifth Umayyad ca- liph and located in the Old City, is still the most impressive structure in Damascus. 'ABD AL-MALIK The fifth Umayyad caliph, under whom the dynasty reached the peak of its power. 'Abd al- Malik was born in Medina and remained there until he moved to Damascus in 683. In 685 he inherited the caliphate. Part of 'Abd al-Malik's success can be at- tributed to his good relations with the elite of Medina, who exercised great influence throughout the Mos- lem world. He is considered, along with Mu'awiyah, to have been the greatest Umayyad leader. 'Abd al- Malik is remembered not only as a skillful politician, but also as the builder of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. AL-AQSA The Al-Aqsa mosque, located at the south end of the Temple Mount, is the most highly-regarded Moslem building in Jerusalem. The term Al- Aqsa, the "remotest", appears in the Koran 17:1: "Praise Him who made His servant journey in the night from the sacred sanctuary to the remotest sanctuary, which we have sur- rounded with blessings to show him of our signs". It is unclear whether the reference is to the mosque or to the entire Temple Mount. Al-Aqsa was erected during the reign of Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik and completed by his son, Caliph al- Walid in the 8th century CE. Al- Walid also constructed a number of luxurious palaces adjacent to Al- Aqsa, south of the mount. Both Al- Aqsa and the palaces were built on fill, and were thus severely damaged in the various Jerusalem earth- quakes. During the Crusader period Al-Aqsa became church property, but under Salah a-Din, it reverted to a mosque. 'ABBASID The 'Abbasid dynasty was the second of the great caliphates. It was founded by the Hashemite family of the Qoraysh tribe and named after al-'Abbas, Mohammed's uncle. The 'Abbasids conqered the Umayyad dynasty in 750 and ruled from their base in Baghdad. While the Umayyad dynasty focused on terri- tory to the north, west and south, the 'Abbasids concentrated on Persia in the east. Many 'Abbasid supporters were Persian converts, who exerted strong Islamic and Persian influences on 'Abbasid governing practices. Under the 'Abbasids, commerce, in- dustry, arts and science flourished. In 1258, the 'Abbasid dynasty fell to the Mongols. CHARLEMAGNE Also known as Charles I and Charles the Great, Charlemagne was a mem- ber of the Carolingian dynasty, king of the Franks in 768. In subsequent years, Charlemagne expanded the Frankish state, ultimately uniting all the Christian countries of western Europe by conquest. In 800, he was crowned by the papacy, who were eager to counter Byzantium with strong leadership. Charlemagne ruled from his court at Aix-la- Chapelle, and initiated a cultural revolution in the empire, known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He died in 814. FATIMID Founded in 909, the Fatimid dynasty, unlike the Sunnite Umayyad and 'Abbasid caliphates, was a Shi'ite dynasty originally based in North Africa. Their imam, al-Mahdi (the righteous one), claimed authority based on direct descendancy from Mohammed. The name Fatimid de- rives from Fatima, daughter of Mo- hammed. As Shi'ites, the Fatimids did not recognize 'Abbasid sover- eignty, and tried to overthrow the dynasty. Although they failed, they pushed as far as Saudi Arabia and Yemen. In Egypt, they founded the city of Cairo in 969, where they es- tablished the al-Azhar mosque and university. The decline of Fatimid power resulted from the strength of the Seljuqs and the rise of the Cru- sades. In Egypt, the Fatimids were simply overshadowed by the emer- gence of Salah a-Din. SHI'ITE The various Moslem sects united by their recognition of 'Ali, Moham- med's son-in-law, as the true fourth caliph. Accordingly, the original name of the Shi'ites was "Shi'at 'Ali, or the "party of 'Ali". When 'Ali was killed by a rebel from his own cam- paign during battles over the caliph- ate by Mu'awiyah, founder of the Umayyad dynasty, the Shi'ites con- tinued to support his descendants as the legitimate rulers of Islam. Over the years, the Shi'ites split into vari- ous sects, but remained united in their acceptance of 'Ali's descendants as the sole heirs to the caliphate. Shi'ites have always been a minority among Moslems, and today comprise just one-tenth of the faith. Their power was increased in the 16th cen- tury when all of Iran adopted Shi'ism as the official state religion. SUNNITES In contrast with the Shi'ites, the Sunnites accepted as rulers any dy- nasty which facilitated stability and freedom of worship in the Moslem world. Unlike the Shi'ites, the Sun- nite Moslems view the caliphate as an elected offfice and not a divinely ordained position. The Sunnites thus accept the first four caliphs as the rightful successors of Mohammed, and have also submitted to the rule of non-Arab caliphs. Through the generations, the Sunnites, based on a system of consensus, have adopted traditions which derive not from the Koran, but from general practice. Today Sunnites comprise the over- whelming majority (90%) of all Moslems, and are outnumbered only in Iran, Iraq and possibly Yemen. SELJUQS The Seljuqs were a nomadic tribe from central Asia, named after an early leader who converted to Sun- nite Islam. During the 11th-12th cen- tury, the Seljuqs expanded into an empire, which at its peak included Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Persia. The Seljuqs conquered Jeru- salem in 1071, but their most signifi- cant conquests were Iran and Ana- tolia. During Seljuq control of Persia, Persian literary culture was revived, replacing the Arabic language that had infiltrated along with the advent of Islam in Persia. During their reign in Anatolia, the Seljuqs established the thriving kingdom of Rum. BALDWIN The younger brother of Godfrey de Bouillon who conquered Jerusalem in the first Crusade, Baldwin I was king of the Crusader state of Jerusa- lem from 1100-1118. Baldwin par- ticipated in the first Crusade, during which he proved his military prowess by winning Edessa in 1098. There he married Arda, the daughter of an Armenian nobleman, strengthening his ties with the Armenian commu- nity. Baldwin inherited the throne upon his brother's death, and was summoned to Jerusalem to succeed him. During his rule he captured all the coastal cities except Ashkelon and Tyre. SALAH A-DIN (1137-1193) An Armenian Kurdish Sunnite Moslem and founder of the Egyptian Ayyubid dynasty. He began his military career by protecting Egypt against Crusader incursions. In 1169 he became vizier of Egypt and further increased his strength by disenfranchising the Shi'ite Fatimid caliphate. He then proceeded to unite all the Moslem territories of the area - Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopota- mia and Palestine. Salah a- Din de- feated the Crusaders in an over- whelming victory in northern Pales- tine at Hittin near Tiberias. This vic- tory facilitated easy conquest of Je- rusalem just a few months later on October 2, 1187, leaving the Cru- sader kingdom with but one strong- hold, in Tyre. In contrast to most conquests of Jerusalem, Salah a- Din's invasion is recalled as rela- tively peaceful, marked by the non- barbaric, even courteous behavior of his troops. AYYUBID The Ayyubid dynasty was the Sun- nite Moslem dynasty founded by Salah a-Din and named after his fa- ther Ayyub (Job). The dynasty began when Ayyub, while governor of Da- mascus under the Seljuqs, was called to defend Egypt against the Crusad- ers. Salah a-Din gained control of Egypt and made it the most powerful Moslem political entity of the time. At its peak, in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, the Ayyubid dynasty controlled Upper Iraq, Syria and Yemen. The Ayyubids were devout Moslems, and in their attempts to proselytize Shi'ites and Christians, they founded madrasas (schools of Islamic learning) in Egypt and Jeru- salem. Also great military engineers, they erected magnificent citadels in Cairo and Allepo. After Salah a- Din's death, the dynasty factional- ized, creating a power vacuum filled by the Mamelukes in 1260. ASHKELON Ashkelon is located on the Mediter- ranean coast, 12 miles north of Gaza. During the early Canaanite period it came under Egyptian control and later it became a Philistine city. During the Israelite period, Ashkelon was ruled by Assyrians, until being conquered by Nebuchadnezzar in the 6th c. BCE. Alexander the Great conquered the city in 332 CE, and in 636 it was conquered by the Arabs. The Crusaders took over Ashkelon in 1153, destroying the city and its walls. It became a major stronghold of Christianity, until Saladin invaded in 1191. FREDERICK II Frederick II was Holy Roman Em- peror in the 13th century and King of Sicily. In 1215, at his coronation, he announced his intention to join the Crusades, but repeatedly post- poned his departure. The repeated delays led to his excommunication, following which, in 1228, he set out for Jerusalem. Frederick II gained Jerusalem by peaceful means, through an agreement with the Sul- tan. Driven by his antagonism for the papacy, and an intellectual interest in Islam, Frederick went to great lengths to make Moslems feel at home in the city. Despite this, full harmony between the Moslem and Christian populations was not achieved. The Moslems continued to view Christian presence in the city unfavorably. MONGOL The Mongols, who invaded and con- quered parts of the Holy Land in 1260, are a group of nomadic tribes who inhabit the Mongolian Plateau. The tribes are closely related to one another genetically, ethnographically and linguistically. Over the years, the Mongols conquered various territo- ries in the east, and held others in terror of invasions and raids. Under Ghengis Khan's sons, the Mongols controlled China and Russia, making frequent incursions into eastern Europe as well. Modern Mongolia is divided into independent Outer Mongolia, and Inner Mongolia, which is part of the People's Repub- lic of China. SABIL OF QA'ITBAY The Sabil or Fountain of Qa'itbay, was erected on the Temple Mount near the Dome of the Rock. The Sabil was supplied with water which flowed via an aqueduct from Solo- mon's pools. Erected in the mid-15th century by Sultan al-Ashraf Inal, the Sabil is named for the Sultan Qa'it- bay, who renovated it in 1482. MADRASA Literally meaning "school" in Ara- bic, but referring to a medieval Is- lamic college for higher studies, as opposed to the traditional elemen- tary school, "al kuttab". The term madrasa refers to a Koran-based theological seminary and law school. Arabic grammar and literature, mathematics and logic were also common components of the madrasa curriculum. The madrasas were funded by wealthy families, enabling students to receive free tuition and board. Many were founded during the Mameluke period, almost all of which survived to this day. MADRASA AL ASHRAFIYYA Located on the western side of the Temple Mount, the Madrasa al- Ashrafiyya bears a stunning facade which renders it suitable company for the Dome of the Rock and Al- Aqsa. Like the Palace of Sitt Tun- shuq, the Madrasa features muqar- nas, as well as the stone color tech- niques used by the Mamelukes. The Madrasa was originally erected in 1465 by the keeper of the Temple Mount and the Hebron Cave of the Patriarchs, but a little more than a decade later it was destroyed and re- built by Malik al-Ashraf Qa'itbay. PASHA During the Ottoman Empire, pasha was the highest title of honor, affixed to the individual's first name. A Turkish term, "pasha" first ap- peared during the Seljuq dynasty. Later, among the Ottomans, it was given to soldiers and high-ranking government officials. Women were rarely granted the title of pasha, but one well-known exception is the title Validepasha, given to the Egyptian pasha's mother. The Turkish Re- public officially ceased employing the title "pasha" in 1934, but it has pene- trated the Turkish language as a general term used to indicate respect for a superior. ISRAEL MUSEUM The Israel Museum (Heb. Muzeon Yisrael), located across from the Knesset (parliament) building in modern Jerusalem, is the national museum of the State of Israel. Opened in 1965, it consists of, among others, a large archaeological mu- seum, the Bezalel National Art Mu- seum, featuring religious and ethno- graphic artifacts, a children's wing and a sculpture garden. Also on the grounds of the museum is the Shrine of the Book, built to contain the Dead Sea Scrolls. The shrine was designed to mimic the shape of the urn in which the scrolls were found. ARMENIANS The borders of the political Arme- nian nation have varied throughout history, though the ethnic region of Armenia spans northeastern Turkey. In 300 CE Christianity was made the official religion of Armenia. Soon af- ter, the first monks and pilgrims set- tled in Jerusalem, founding one of the oldest of Jerusalem's Christian communities. In subsequent years Armenia was ruled by Byzantines, Arabs, Seljuqs, Mongols and Turks. In the 20th century, much of the population was decimated by Turk- ish and Russian massacres. In Jeru- salem, the Armenians are one of the major churches in the city. Today many Armenians living in Jerusalem reside in the Armenian Quarter of the Old City, on the grounds of, or adjacent to, St. James. MOHAMMED 'ALI Viceroy and pasha of Egypt 1805- 1849, Mohammed 'Ali set Egypt on the road to modernity. Although many of his reforms were unsuccess- ful, they set the tone for the modern Egyptian state. 'Ali introduced radi- cal economic and administrative re- forms and continued the trend of the French occupiers, destroying the former Egyptian ruling classes, in- cluding the landowners and the Ma- melukes. Mohammed 'Ali answered to the Ottoman sultan, but later in his career challenged his power. During his first campaign against the Ottomans he conquered Syria and Palestine, including Jerusalem. Mo- hammed 'Ali instituted a number of reforms affecting minorities during his period of rule over Palestine, which paved the way for moderniza- tion. GODFREY DE BOUILLON A leader of the First Crusade, God- frey de Bouillon reached the Holy Land and became the first ruler of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem: "Protector of the Holy Sepulcher". His title was later modified to "Patriarch of Jerusalem", a change that eventually led to struggles be- tween religious and lay leaders in the kingdom. De Bouillon was successful in arranging truces with the Moslem coastal cities, but his alienation from many dominant figures from the Crusades led them to leave him and Jerusalem undefended. Despite his shortcomings, De Bouillon was my- thologized as an ideal knight. Upon his death, he was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who had accom- panied him on the Crusade. MAMELUKES The were a melange of Turkish- speaking peoples, Circassians and Arabs, imported by the Moslems as slave fighters. Mameluke means "owned" in Arabic. The Mamelukes were able to usurp power due to key military positions held in Arab soci- ety. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, the Mamelukes established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Syria from 1260-1517. The Mamelukes left their mark on the Arab world, with their unique architectural style. Jerusalem was conquered by the first Mame- luke Sultan Baybars, who ruled from 1260-1277. The most famous cultural Mameluke figure is Arab historian Ibn Khaldun. The Mamelukes re- mained powerful in Egypt until an 1811 massacre initiated by Moham- med 'Ali. SULEIMAN Known also as The Magnificent, and The Lawgiver, Suleiman served as Ottoman sultan from 1520-1566. Un- der Suleiman, the Ottoman Empire reached its peak of civilization. Mili- tarily, Suleiman launched successful campaigns both in Christian Europe and against Persia. Accomplished cultural heroes of his reign include the Turkish poet Baki, and the archi- tect Sinan. Islam also flourished un- der Suleiman. Two great 'Ulama (Islamic legal specialists) were pro- ductive during his reign. In addition, Suleiman filled the Islamic cities un- der his rule with public works, in- cluding mosques. In Jerusalem he is best remembered for building the walls of the Old City, one of the most prominent features on the Jerusalem skyline. SELIM II Although Ottoman sultan Selim II had little time for Jerusalem, his reign (1566-1574) saw a rise of Ot- toman dominance in the Mediterra- nean. The Ottoman capture of Cy- prus in 1570-71 resulted first in the formation of a European anti- Ottoman alliance, but within a year Venice deferred to Ottoman hegem- ony in the region. While Selim II was able to secure Ottoman power in the Mediterranean and preserve peace in Asia and Europe, his personal power waned relative to that of the elite corps (Janissaries). The decline of the sultanate continued during sub- sequent decades. MURAD III Ottoman sultan 1574-95. During Murad III's reign, the Ottomans en- gaged in protracted wars against both Iran and Austria and expanded Ottoman territory in Morocco, Iran and Transcaucasia. Under Murad III, the empire suffered greatly, due to nepotism, neglect and decay of the army, increased taxation to pay war expenses, and the reckless importing of cheap silver from South America via Spain, which led to inflation. Je- rusalem's decline during this period echoed that of the Ottoman empire as a whole. OTTOMAN EMPIRE Founded by Turkish tribes in the 14th century while Byzantine power was in decline, the Ottoman empire survived until the creation of the re- public of Turkey in 1922. The reign of Suleiman I marked the height of Ottoman rule. Under subsequent leaders, Ottoman rule declined. By the 18th century widespread unrest, war and famine plagued the empire. The mid to late 19th century Tanzi- mat Reforms were introduced to Eu- ropeanize the Ottoman administra- tion, but this did not prevent disinte- gration of the empire. The final blow to Ottoman power was the crushing defeat suffered by the empire in World War I. CRIMEAN WAR The Crimean war, fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula from 1853 to 1856, resulted from power struggles in the Middle East. The war began on October 4, when the Ottomans, supported by Britain, declared war against Russia, the immediate cause being Russia's desire to serve as the protector of Orthodox Christian Ot- toman subjects. The French joined the war, motivated by conflicts over holy places in Palestine between the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. The Crimean War was ended by the Treaty of Paris, which favored Ottoman Turkey and left the Black Sea and Danube River open to free trade. Some 250,000 lives were lost on both sides. TANZIMAT A series of reforms implemented by the Ottomans between 1839 and 1876. The aim of the Tanzimat was to westernize the empire and effectively transform it into a modern state. Early reforms included standardiza- tion of the taxation system to reduce corruption, guarantee of right to life, property and honor regardless of race or religion, and equality for non-Moslem subjects. Among the later reforms were establishment of a secular school system, reorganization of the army, and implementation of new codes of criminal and commer- cial law. The pitfall of the Tanzimat was concentration of power in the hands of the sultan. Under sultan 'Abd al-Aziz, in the late 1870s, the reforms were undermined. Neverthe- less, the wheels of modernization had been set in motion. SULTAN The term sultan was first used as a title for Moslem political rulers be- ginning in the 11th century. The use of the Arabic word sultan, however, predates this period. In the Koran, "sultan" refers to a moral or spiri- tual authority. The first political leader who used the term was Mah- mud of Ghazna. The Seljuqs later adopted it as a regular title, and it spread throughout the Islamic world. The term was used by various rulers including the caliph. NAHMANIDES (Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, known by the acronym Ramban). Born in Catalonia, Nahmanides was a bibli- cal commentator, philosopher, kab- balist, poet, physician and one of the greatest commentators of the Middle Ages on Jewish law. In addition, he was well versed in science and Christian theology, and publicly ar- gued Jewish doctrine against Chris- tian theologians. He emigrated to Je- rusalem in 1265, arriving there in 1267. In a letter to one of his sons, he complained of the dire state of the city, and the lack of Jews: "only two brothers, dyers, who bought their dye from the governor and were joined by up to ten Jews in their home on Sabbath for prayers". Upon his arrival he reorganized the Jewish community and many Jews were drawn to return to the city. Nah- manides died in 1270. Some 50 of his works have survived. RABBI OVADIAH DA BERTINORO Born c. 1450, Bertinoro was an Ital- ian rabbi and commentator, famous for composing what has become the standard commentary on the Mish- nah. At the age of 38 he set off for Jerusalem. The records he kept of his travels provide information about the Jewish communities of Palermo, Messina, Rhodes, Alexandria and Cairo. Once in Jerusalem, Bertinoro set about uniting the divided com- munity. He gave sermons, taught, buried the dead (a responsibility shunned by local inhabitants at the time), and established an Italian- based fund for the poor. Bertinoro was also known by the acronym Yare, standing for Yhi Ratzui Echav ("Let him be the favored of his brethren", Deut., 33:24). DAVID'S TOMB According to I Kings 2:10, King David was buried in the City of David. The site most popularly held to be the location of David's Tomb is on Mt. Zion. Association of the site with the tomb dates to the Middle Ages, and was incorporated into Jewish, Moslem and Christian tradi- tion. The tomb was discovered dur- ing the course of repairs to a church at the site. For many generations Jewish access to the tomb was de- nied, but this changed when the Pal- mah conquered the tomb in 1948. Be- tween 1948 and 1967, David's Tomb was frequented by Jewish pilgrims, since it was the closest point to the Old City during the years when the Western Wall was inaccessible to Jews. ASHKENAZI Jews whose heritage includes the Yiddish language and those tradi- tions common to the Jews of Eastern Europe in the prayer service, Torah chanting, pronunciation of the He- brew language and other traditions. Ashkenazi originally referred to those Jews who lived in the Rhine- land Valley and France and fled to Eastern Europe during the Crusades. Many of these Jews returned to west- ern Europe in the 17th-century in the wake of pogroms and other forms of persecution. Ashkenazi Jews consti- tute some 80% of the world Jewish population and 50% of the Jewish population of Israel. The modern Hebrew accent reflects the Sepharadi and not Ashkenazi pronunciation. MOUNT ZION A hill in Jerusalem outside the city walls on the Old City's western ridge. Historically, Mt. Zion has referred variously to the City of David, all of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Ruins of a late Roman synagogue have been found on the mount. In the fourth century CE, the Holy Zion church was built there to commemo- rate the site of the Last Supper. Mid- 5th century records of a travelling bishop mention that Franciscan monks had established cells on the mount. By the Middle Ages a tradi- tion had evolved that David's Tomb was located on Mt. Zion. Conflicting Jewish and Christian claims to the Mount led to controversy between the two communities. In the 15th century, the Moslems solved this problem by taking over the building, eventually evicting the Franciscans. Mount Zion is also believed to be the site of the dormition of Mary. By 1910 the Benedictine Order had erected the Church of the Dormition of Mary on Mt. Zion, one of the dominant buildings on the mount. JERUSALEM-AREA MONASTERIES Apart from the monasteries founded within Jerusalem by the various Christian sects, a large number of monasteries were also founded in the Judean Desert. The terrain of the de- sert lends itself to monastic life, with steep cliffs which provide isolation, and caves for natural rock cover. During the Byzantine era, some sixty monasteries were established in the Judean Desert, several of them on the road descending from Jerusalem to the Jordan valley. The Monastery of St. George in Wadi Kelt (Nahal Prat), which can still be visited to- day, is one example. With the Persian and Moslem conquests in the seventh century, many of the Judean Desert monasteries disappeared; only the most important remained. LEHI An acronym for "Lohamei Herut Is- rael" or Israel freedom fighters, the Lehi was an armed underground or- ganization. The Lehi broke off from its forerunner, the Etzel. In 1942, when the British police killed Avra- ham Stern, founder and leader of the group, the group reorganized, calling itself Lehi. Lehi activities included assassinations, sabotage and armed attacks on British military and gov- ernment agents and installations, and operation of a clandestine radio sta- tion. During 1947 and 1948, Lehi and Etzel forces together fought against Arab forces. The Lehi was disbanded with the founding of the State of Is- rael. DERVISH Any member of a Moslem mystic sect. The mystic sects, including the Sufis, established in the 12th century and led by sheikhs, were character- ized by the attempt to reach spiritual heights through ritual recitation and dance. Dervishes can reside in a dervish community or in a lay com- munity. The term for a wandering dervish is "fakir". In the Middle Ages, dervishes were leading figures in many Islamic communities. Today they are more often under govern- ment control and are dismissed by the mainstream religious. BEDOUIN Arabic-speaking nomads of the Middle Eastern deserts, traditionally classified according to the main ani- mal herds they tend (camel, sheep, goat, cattle). Most Bedouins take their animals to pasture during the rainy season, and return closer to settled areas during the dry months. Since the mid-20th century, conflicts over Bedouin land use have in- creased, and many Bedouin have be- come sedentary due to changing po- litical and economic factors. This has led to, among other things, the end of Bedouin raids on outlying villages. The Bedouin are regarded among Arab speakers as the last vestiges of the Arab race who have preserved true Arab values and the purity of the Arab language. ARAB LEGION A large Arab force recruited and trained in 1921 by a British officer, to keep the peace among the tribes of Transjordan and to protect villages from Bedouin raids. By 1939, the Arab Legion had become arguably the most effective Arab military force in the world. During Israel's War of Independence in 1948, the Arab Legion was the only Arab army that was able to stand its ground against the Israeli forces. In 1956, the Legion was taken over by King Hussein of Jordan and merged with the Jordanian National Guard. The territory it retained, known today as the West Bank and including East Jerusalem, was annexed by Jordan, and taken over by Israel in 1967. SUEZ CANAL A man-made waterway connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas, via the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt. The canal is a vital short-cut for water transport between Europe and the Indian and western Pacific Oceans. The 100-mile-long canal begins at Port Said on the Mediterranean side, crosses three lakes, and opens on to the Gulf of Suez on the Red Sea side. The canal was completed in 1869. Since then, many settlements have sprouted up in its vicinity, in what had previously been uninhabited territory. The Egyptians blocked passage to Israeli ships in the canal in 1956 and 1967, which led to the Sinai Campaign and the Six-Day War, respectively. In the 1980s the canal was widened and deepened, and it is now viable for the largest commercial sea vessels. ROMANESQUE Romanesque architecture was a me- dieval European form of building popular from c.1000-1150. It com- bines traditions from various cul- tures, including Roman, Carolingian, Byzantian and Germanic. The emer- gence of Romanesque architecture is largely the result of the proliferation of monastic orders, which required expansion of church buildings for monks and saints. Characteristic fea- tures of expanded Romanesque churches include multiple chapels, Roman arch windows and doors and arched vaults. Romanesque style was replaced by Gothic. One noteworthy example of Romanesque influence on Jerusalem architecture is the lintels of the main entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which are on display at the Rockefeller Museum. VIA DOLOROSA The Via Dolorosa, or "route of sor- rows" is the term used for what is traditionally believed to be Jesus' last path. This path traverses the 14 Stations of the Cross, beginning at the Praetorium and ending at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, a site identified with Golgotha. Via Do- lorosa is also a name given to a ba- zaar street that runs from the Mos- lem quarter to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, coinciding with only part of the traditional route. MOUNT SCOPUS The northernmost of the mountains of the Mount Scopus range, north of the Mount of Olives, is itself called Mt. Scopus. The Hebrew University was founded there in 1925, as was the adjoining Hadassah Hospital. Other buildings include the Augusta Victo- ria Hospital and the British War Cemetery for soldiers who fell in World War I. The entire city of Jeru- salem can be seen from this moun- tain, and it was thus used as a van- tage point for armies that conquered Jerusalem over the centuries. Be- tween 1948 and 1967 Mt. Scopus was a Jordanian-surrounded Israeli en- clave, but was not contiguous with Israeli territory. The university was temporarily moved to west Jerusa- lem. HANEVI'IM STREET Hanevi'im Street, or, in English, the Street of the Prophets (formerly known as the Consulates' Street), is one of the most central in the new city. This street was immortalized by Israeli writer David Shachar. It be- gins across from the Davidka me- morial on Jaffa street and continues east to the Damascus Gate. Between 1948 and 1967 a large wall was erected where Hanevi'im crossed from Israeli to Jordanian territory. Buildings on HaNevi'im include the British Mission Hospital, the Bikur Holim Hospital, the Sisters of Joseph Monastery, a building owned by the Ethiopian government and others. In addition, the street contains many charming houses whose residents in- cluded the poetess Rahel and painter Holman Hunt. HEBREW UNIVERSITY Established in 1925 on Mount Scopus, the Hebrew University was the first Israeli university. During the siege of 1948, several of its de- partments moved to west Jerusalem. Later, a second campus was built on Givat Ram, opposite the Knesset. Al- though studies on Mount Scopus re- sumed after 1967, the Givat Ram campus was established as the natu- ral sciences campus of the university. Givat Ram is also the site of the Is- rael National Library. ROCKEFELLER MUSEUM Located outside Herod's Gate, the Rockefeller Museum is one of Israel's largest museums. The museum, built during the British Mandate period, was made possible by a generous do- nation from John D. Rockefeller Jr., after whom the Museum was named. This extensive archaeological mu- seum includes artifacts representing all the periods of Jerusalem's history, dating back as early as the Stone Age. CHRISTIAN QUARTER The northwest quarter of the Old City, the Christian Quarter, covers 45 acres and is home to over 4,000 inhabitants. Almost every Christian Church is represented in the quarter, the most ancient of which is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. CITADEL The fortress-like structure located at the Jaffa Gate. The citadel comprises five towers, one of which is known as the Tower of David and stands out along the silhouette of the western city wall. Jerusalem's citadel was not always located in this precise spot. For example, during the Hasmonean period the citadel was located east of today's structure. The early Moslems used the current location as a head- quarters. Later, under the Crusaders and the Mamelukes, it was used as a fortress. Today the fortress is obso- lete, but the Tower of David and sur- rounding grounds have been con- verted into Jerusalem's historical museum. The name Tower of David is a misnomer dating from the Byz- antine-period. WHITE PAPER Issued in 1939 by the British gov- ernment, the White Paper limited Jewish immigration to Palestine. The White Paper was issued precisely when European Jews were seeking refuge from the Nazis. The White Paper led to a crisis among Jews in Palestine. Some enlisted in the Brit- ish Army, forming a Jewish Brigade, but others, such as members of the Lehi, continued to fight against the British. David Ben-Gurion endeav- ored to solve the paradox with the dictum: "We shall fight against Germany as if there were no White Paper, and we shall fight against the White Paper as if there were no war against Germany". KHALAMIT The plant Malva sylvestris L., known in Hebrew as khalamit and in Arabic as hubeizah, was an important food source for Jerusalem residents dur- ing the Arab seige in 1947-48. Dov Yosef, the Jewish military governor of Jerusalem during this period, wrote in his journal: "In an effort to increase our chances to remain alive, we began to induce residents to plant vegetables in their gardens and use waste water for irrigation...we also sent children to the fields to gather leaves of khalamit...which bears the taste of spinach, and we sold it to the public for soup". The khalamit was marketed as "New Zealand Spin- ach". Khalamit grows wild in almost all areas of Israel. CHURCH OF THE ASCENSION The Church of the Ascension was one of the many projects supported by Byzantine Christian benefactors Melania and Poemenia in 378 CE. The church was erected at the high- est point on the Mount of Olives to commemorate Jesus' ascension to heaven. The Crusaders erected an octagonal edifice, topped by a dome and supported by pillars, in its place. With the advent of Moslem rule, the building was converted in 1187 into a mosque. Today the structure is known as the Ascension Chapel. Every year, 40 days after Easter, the various Christian communities of Je- rusalem gather at this site for a spe- cial Mass which marks the Feast of the Ascension. COENACULUM Atop Mount Zion, adjacent to the room where Jesus is said to have washed his disciples' feet, is the Coenaculum, the Room of the Last Supper. This room is also considered to be the site of two important events following the Ascension. It was here where Matthias is thought to have chosen to replace Judas (Acts 1:12 ff.). And, according to the text, it was at this same spot that the Holy Spirit was revealed to the Apostles as holy flames that appeared on their heads (Whit Sunday). POLL TAX ("hijza" in Arabic) Non-Moslem sub- jects of the Moslem state (Christians and Jews in the case of Jerusalem) were ascribed a special legal status known as "ahl a-dhimma" or people of the pact. The premise of this pact was that the non-Moslems accepted the supremacy of Islam and certain social restrictions, in exchange for freedom of worship, a large degree of local autonomy and state protection of their lives and property. One of the manifestations of the subordina- tion of the "dhimmi" was the poll- tax, collected from non-Moslems only. CALIPH AL HAKIM The sixth Fatimid caliph, Abu 'Ali al- Mansur, known as al-Hakim and also as the Mad Caliph, was re- nowned for his cruelty and persecu- tion. He occasionally exhibited lib- eralism and asceticism. Though his own mother was a Christian, al- Hakim dealt most harshly with the Christian community. In Jerusalem, al-Hakim's extreme measures in- cluded prohibition of the Palm Sun- day procession in the city in 1007 and destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in 1009-10. In a later pe- riod he relented, even ordering resto- ration of some of the Christian prop- erty in the city. He is recalled in some of the tales of 1001 Nights. He died a mysterious death in 1021. CALIPH 'ABD AL-'AZIZ The fifth Fatimid caliph ( 975-996), Nizar Abu Mansur, known as al- 'Aziz Bi'llah, is remembered for re- ducing corruption in his regime, and for the spirit of tolerance with which he oversaw his caliphate. He ap- pointed several high-ranking Chris- tian and Jewish officials, including the brothers of his Christian wife, one of whom was Orestes, Patriarch of Jerusalem. Despite the under- standing he displayed towards the non-Moslem communities, he was less tolerant of Sunni Moslems, whose freedom of worship he re- stricted in a number of ways. al- 'Aziz was succeeded by his son, the "Mad Caliph" al-Hakim. 'Abd al- 'Aziz is said to have built the south- ern wall of the Old City. COLONEL STORRS Sir Ronald Storrs (1881-1955) was British military governor of Palestine from 1917-1920, and Jerusalem Dis- trict Commissioner from 1920-1926. One of his major contributions to the city was the founding of the Pro- Jerusalem Society, which collected funds, primarily from British bene- factors, for restoring the Old City. Storrs was disliked by much of the Jewish community, which felt he was too lenient with Arab rioters. Jewish leaders called for his resignation, but the High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel, rejected the appeal. In 1926 Storrs served as governor of Cyprus. Later he served in Northern Rhode- sia. PARTITION PLAN In the early 20th century, Jewish settlement in Palestine led to a string of contiguous Jewish settlements, known as the "yishuv". When divi- sion between Arab and Jewish areas was deemed a desirable solution to the growing tensions between the two communities, the British devised a number of partition plans. The plan ultimately accepted by the UN on November 29, 1947 suggested an Arab state, a Jewish state and an in- ternationalized Jerusalem. The Arab states rejected the plan, resulting in the 1948 war. Following the war, the State of Israel controlled more of western Palestine than allocated in the plan, while Jerusalem was di- vided along cease-fire lines between Israel and Jordan. GENERAL ALLENBY Known by his troops as "the Bull" Viscount Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby was the commander of the British Expetitionary Forces during World War I. In this capacity, Al- lenby led the British troops who de- feated the Ottomans in Palestine. Je- rusalem was captured on December 9, 1917, but the Ottomans were not entirely routed until almost one year later. Allenby received the title Vis- count for his role in the war. Rehov Allenby, a main street in Tel-Aviv, is named after the general. VILAYETS The Turkish equivalent for "province", during the Ottoman Empire. The vilayets were ruled by a Beglerbeg, later called "vali" or gov- ernor. The word vilayet derives from the Arabic "waliya" meaning to have power over something. JERUSALEM STONE Stone has been the key building ele- ment in Jerusalem from ancient times to the present. The predomi- nant techniques of modern stone quarrying and building were devel- oped by Jerusalem-area Arabs. Bethlehemites were those best known for their stone-working skills. The Jerusalem building stones come in a variety of colors, including shades of gray and white, light brown, yellow, blue, and reds from faded pink to deep red. The stone, much of it quarried locally, varies in quality with respect to weather resistance and hardness. The stoneworking trade is so highly developed that in the field of quarrying alone there are seven different types of hammers. EARTHQUAKE Jerusalem is relatively close to the Syrian-African Rift, the longest fault line in the world. For this reason, Je- rusalem has suffered earthquakes over the centuries. Although Jerusa- lem is built mainly on bedrock which minimizes damage, earthquakes have caused their share of damage to the city. For example, it is thought that an earthquake in 362 caused a con- flagration which led the Emperor Julian to cease reconstruction of the Temple. In 748 an earthquake de- stroyed Al-Aqsa and other structures built on fill below the mount. The earthquake of 1033 left Jerusalem's walls in ruins. A 1545 earthquake de- stroyed the belfry of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. In 1927, the Augusta Victoria bulding was so se- verely damaged in an earthquake that the High Commissioner had to move his headquarters. AUGUSTA VICTORIA The looming square tower of Augusta Victoria, standing high atop the Mount of Olives, can be seen from many points, particularly from Mt. Scopus. The building, originally intended as a hospice for German pilgrims, is named for Queen Augusta of Germany, wife of Wil- helm II who laid the cornerstone in 1898 during a visit to Jerusalem. In- side Augusta Victoria is a church. During World War I, when Jerusa- lem was under its last years of Otto- man Rule, the Turkish army used Augusta Victoria as its headquarters. The victorious British army took over the building and remained there until 1927, when the building was se- verely damaged in an earthquake. The British repaired the building and during World War II it served as a military hospital. Today Augusta Victoria houses a German- owned hospital which serves the Pal- estinian community, particularly Je- rusalem and West Bank residents. MARK ANTONY Was a brilliant militarist and politi- cian. He worked closely with Julius Caesar, supporting him in the Senate and in the war against Pompey. As retold in Shakespeare's tragedy, upon Caesar's assassination, Mark Antony rallied people to take revenge on the assassins. In 43 BCE he be- came one of the three Roman trium- virs, gaining control of the eastern part of the empire. On a visit to Al- exandria in this context, he met Cleopatra and became her lover. During this time Antony crowned Herod king of Judah. In 32 BCE, following a dispute with fellow tri- umvir Octavius, the triumvirate dis- solved. Several battles ensued. The last was the battle of Actium in 31 BCE, after which Mark Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt and commit- ted suicide together. Herod named the Antonia Fortress after Mark An- tony in 10 BCE, 20 years after his death. ANTIOCH Thought to have been a name for the Upper City of Jerusalem during the rule of Jason, prior to the Mac- cabean conquest in 165 BCE. The name Antioch was taken from what was then the capital of the Seleucid kingdom. Perhaps the choice of this name to refer to Jerusalem reflected the desire of the Hellenized Jewish leaders for rapprochement with the Seleucids. The term "Antioch" re- ferring to Jerusalem must not then be confused with the city Antioch in modern-day Turkey. This Antioch, founded in 300 BCE, was an impor- tant Jewish city in antiquity, and later became a center for Christian- ity. Peter the Apostle was head of the community of Jesus' adherents in Antioch. They were the first follow- ers to actually be called "Christians". In Crusader times this Antioch became the capital of a Latin state of the same name. NAHMANIDES SYNAGOGUE Built in the 13th century, the Nah- manides or Ramban Synagogue still functions today as an Ashkenazi synagogue in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. The vicissitudes experi- enced by this synagogue are well known. During Ottoman rule in the 1530s and 40s, the Jewish community had the synagogue repaired and ex- panded. During this period, the "Sayidna 'Omar" mosque was lo- cated nearby the synagogue. At first, Moslem neighbors challenged the Jewish ownership of part of the area around the synagogue. Later, they contested the right to use the struc- ture as a prayer site. This scenario repeated itself in 1556, and was re- solved with bribery. The man who stood behind these challenges to Jewish possession of the building, which continued in subsequent years, was Ahmad al-Dejani, who also pro- voked the evacuation of the Francis- cans from Mt. Zion during the same period. During the Mandate period, the synagogue was used by Jerusa- lem Arabs as a cheese-making fac- tory. The synagogue was restored af- ter 1967. MISHKENOT SHA'ANANIM Mishkenot Sha'ananim ("peaceful dwellings") was commissioned by the great English benefactor of Jerusa- lem, Sir Moses Montefiore, and built with funds donated by U.S. philan- thropist Judah Touro from New Or- leans. At its completion in 1860, it was the most important building outside the Old City walls and marked the beginning of modern Je- rusalem. In the early 1970s Mayor Teddy Kollek and the Jerusalem Foundation restored Mishkenot to its original austere simplicity and ele- gance, making it a special feature of the city's most picturesque neigh- borhood, Yemin Moshe. Today, Mishkenot is Jerusalem's official guest house, where famous philoso- phers, writers, poets, musicians and artists may temporarily come to live and work. Some of our most illustri- ous contemporaries - Pablo Casals, Marc Chagall, Saul Bellow, Jean Paul Satre and Simone de Beauvoir to name but a few - have stayed here. One of Jerusalem's finest restaurants is also located in Mishkenot. MAMILLA POOL A large rainwater pool in the heart of Jerusalem. The name may derive from the Arabic "water from Allah", which refers to the blessing of the rains. Adjacent to the pool is a large Moslem cemetery, suggesting a sec- ond possible interpretation of the word Mamilla - "with the faith of Allah" - a saying uttered by Moslems at the time of burial. Mamilla is lo- cated near today's Independence park and the Nahalat Shiv'a neigh- borhood and pedestrian mall. Also in close proximity to the pool is the partially-preserved historic Mamilla neighborhood, located in the shadow of the Old City walls on the Jaffa Gate side. MAHANEH YEHUDA A large Jerusalem neighborhood lo- cated on either side of Jaffa Road. Built in 1887 by the Freudiger group, entrepreneurs who were central in founding several Jerusalem neigh- borhoods, Mahaneh Yehuda retains much of its antique flavor. Quaint houses and courtyards, narrow alleys and a large open-air market are among the characteristics of Ma- haneh Yehuda and surrounding neighborhoods. The neighborhood was named after Yehudah Navon, a brother of one of the founders who passed away at a young age. Today the area boasts a diverse population, paralleled by one of the largest and most diverse concentrations of syna- gogues in the city. REHAVIA The Rehavia neighborhood was pur- chased by the "Hachsharat HaY- ishuv" company from the Greek Pa- triarchate in 1921. From the outset Rehavia was an exclusive and mod- ern neighborhood. Even today, Re- havia properties are among the pri- ciest real estate in Jerusalem. Re- havia is characterized by the many houses in the German Bauhaus style, narrow streets and small parks. The Jewish National Fund headquarters, in the Jewish Agency compound at the northeastern edge of the neigh- borhood, was built on land bought by the Fund from the "Hachsharat HaYishuv" early in the neighbor- hood's development. Many of Re- havia's older population are German Jews who arrived in Jerusalem at the turn of the century, and German can still be heard on the streets. Among this neighborhood's celebrated resi- dents have included the Prime Minis- ter of Israel, whose official house is located here, and the late Nobel Lau- reate, novelist S.Y. Agnon. Rehavia is named after a stream bed of the same name that runs underground along the northern border of the neighborhood through the Valley of the Cross. BAYIT VEGAN The original plot on which this Jeru- salem neighborhood was constructed was purchased by an association headed by two rabbis, a gentleman and a lawyer. The goal was to build seventy units with private gardens. The neighborhood was advertized as featuring trees, flowers and clean air. "Bayit VeGan" literally means "house and garden". Bayit VeGan is no longer a country suburb, but is in the heart of the modern city. Still it retains the advantage of being lo- cated on the highest hill in Jerusa- lem, some 836 meters above sea level. Bayit VeGan's population today comprises ultra-orthodox, modern orthodox and secular Jews. CALIPHA The office of the leader of the Mos- lems. The caliphate was instituted to fill the gap created by the death of Mohammed, who had been a relig- ious leader and revealer, prophet and prince. The first four succeeding caliphs (Abu Baker, 'Omar, 'Othman and 'Ali) were not prophets but were still venerated as special leaders. They are referred to as the "rightly guided" or "rashidun". From 'Ali, the caliphate continued as an heredi- tary office, but election by religious scholars confirmed its authority. Throughout Moslem history, the seat of the caliphate moved about as the Moslem world changed. During the 'Umayyad dynasty the caliphate was located in Damascus, and under the 'Abbasids, in Baghdad. SHEIKH JARRAH An Arab neighborhood located on a large hill between the Old City and Mt. Scopus. Some of the most gran- diose Arab residences are located in this neighborhood, which is also home to a number of large hotels and consulates. Sheikh Jarrah was in fact an historical figure, buried in the mosque at the entrance to the neigh- borhood. According to local tradi- tion, the sheikh is thought to have participated in the expeditions of Salah a-Din, and was credited with healing wounded soldiers. The sheikh's gift of healing apparently passed on to his tomb, which is thought to have healing powers. TALBIYEH Perhaps the most stately of all Jeru- salem neighborhoods. Prior to 1948, Talbiyeh was occupied primarily by prominent Christian Arab families and visiting European dignitaries employed by churches, consulates and other foreign institutions located in the city. In 1948, during the War of Independence, a battle was fought in the heart of the neighborhood. Af- ter the war the neighborhood's name was changed to "Kommemiut" but Jerusalemites may respond with a blank stare if approached by tourists using this name, which never quite caught on. The house of the Presi- dent of Israel is located at the edge of Talbiyeh on President's Boulevard, as is the Jerusalem Theater, a major municipal performing arts' center. KATAMON The original Katamon neighborhood, known as Old Katamon, grew up around the Saint Simon (San Simon) monastery in south-west Jerusalem. Until the 1948 War of Independence the neighborhood was inhabited primarily by Greek-Orthodox Christian Arabs. The name Katamon is composed of two Greek words, "kata monis" or near the monastery. After the war, the neighborhood ex- panded to accommodate the large influx of Jewish immigrants to the new state. Being close to the Jorda- nian border, the area was renamed Gonen, from the Hebrew root "GNN" to defend. HASMONEAN PALACE The Hasmonean Palace was one of the many buildings in the new, Has- monean-period Upper City of Jerusa- lem. The Upper City, corresponding roughly with today's Jewish Quarter, was built in the Greek style. In addi- tion to the palace it included a gym- nasium, a city council building and luxurious residences. The writings of historian Josephus Flavius are the main source of information about the palace. According to Josephus, the palace was placed on a spot that was chosen because it overlooked the Temple Mount. Agrippa II built an additional wing which capitalized on the stunning view.